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Milk, a complex chemical compound, is a heterogeneous mixture that contains lactose, soluble whey proteins, certain minerals, and fat emulsified as globules, as well as the main milk protein (casein) and some mineral materials in the colloidal condition. Since milk is a great provider of both macro- and micronutrients, it can be very helpful to people in meeting their nutritional needs. Milk protein is a significant source of protein with a great biological value since it contains all of the essential amino acids. Small-scale livestock owners, who provide the great bulk of milk in developing nations, rely heavily on dairy cows for household food security. Approximately 87% of the milk produced worldwide comes from cow, buffalo, goat, and sheep. However, in several nations, small dairy animal species are significant both economically and nutritionally. Milk proteins, including casein and whey proteins, are crucial in the food industry due to their nutritional value, functional properties, and versatility in various applications. This chapter summarizes the compositions of milk from different species, milk products, and functions and applications of milk protein in detail.

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Cereal-derived proteins offer a sustainable solution to the rising global food demand. A comprehensive examination of cereal proteins that emphasises their structural characteristics, modification methods, biological activities, and use in food systems highlights the aggregation tendencies. These tendencies can impede certain functional properties of proteins due to disulphide bonds and other interactions. Novel approaches like enzymatic treatments and physical processes (such as ultrasonic techniques) can improve their functional attributes by altering the structures of proteins. This chapter will focus on novel modification techniques aimed at enhancing the functional characteristics of plant proteins. This will address the crucial need for an efficient utilisation strategy for proteins sourced from cereals and pseudocereals, considering the growing environmental impact of animal protein production. This chapter will enquire about the bioactive characteristics of plant proteins, including their antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-tumoural activities and their use in developing meat analogues, dairy substitutes, baked products, and 3D-printed meals. However, challenges in reproducing the sensory characteristics, along with consumer apprehensions, highlight the necessity for targeted research to address these obstacles and enhance the appeal and acceptance of cereal proteins. This chapter will compare cereal proteins’ composition diversity, nutritional profiles, digestibility, environmental effects, and consumer acceptance. Nevertheless, focusing on the evaluative criteria for using plant proteins as sustainable, nutritional, and functional ingredients while promoting research to address sensory and functional obstacles to enhance consumer acceptability and marketability will also be covered.

Pages: 36

Pulse proteins offer great potential to meet global nutritional and environmental challenges, and have received significant attention. Pulses, derived from legumes, come from beans, peas, chickpeas, and lentils, are plentiful in dietary fibre, bioactive chemicals and vital amino acids. Many plant-based proteins are low-fat and cholesterol-free and are therefore becoming increasingly popular alternatives to animal proteins to feed consumers’ apparently growing obsession with a plant-based diet. Due to its functional properties such as emulsification, gelation, and water-binding capacity, pulse proteins are considered valuable ingredients in the food industry. Their emulsifying, gelling, thickening, and foaming properties enable them to be used in numerous products, with applications in bread and snack products, dairy alternatives, and meat analogues, animal feed, cosmetics, and personal care products. Advances in processing technologies, including dry fractionation, extrusion, and enzymatic modification of pulse proteins have enhanced their solubility, digestibility, and sensory appeal, thus further increasing the market potential of pulse protein-based products. Pulse proteins are important in nutrition for helping with gut health, diabetes, and cardiovascular management. Legumes also rank high on the sustainability scale because most legume crops can fix atmospheric nitrogen, lessening the need for chemical fertilisers and lowering the environmental footprint of food grown. In addition, pulses use up less water and produce lower greenhouse gases than conventional animal husbandry. However, there are some challenges such as allergenicity, anti-nutritional factors, and low methionine content. Breeding strategies, biofortification, and innovative food processing approaches have been used in recent studies to address these limitations. Pulse proteins are being pursued for both biodegradable plastics and biofilms, and they have been shown to be suitable as aquaculture feeds. The chemistry–structure–function relationships, nutritional properties, processing technologies, and environmental impact of pulse proteins will be evaluated in this chapter, emphasising their integral position in sustainable nutrition and global food security. The food sector can hit both health and sustainability targets by using pulse proteins.

Pages: 51

Oilseed proteins represent a class of plant-based proteins that are generally derived from seeds like soybean, canola, sunflower, rapeseed, and flaxseed. These oilseeds are considered a storehouse of essential amino acids that not only offer numerous health benefits but also contribute to the growing protein demands. Therefore, this chapter focuses on exploring oilseed for extraction of proteins, functional attributes, and application in foods, and pharmaceutics. Conventionally, the extraction of protein was carried out using the alkaline extraction method that limits its yield and functionality. In this concern, utilising physical, chemical, and biological techniques are found to have a positive impact on yield and other functional properties (solubility, foaming capacity, gelation activity, and emulsifying capacity) of proteins. The production of bioactive peptides during enzymatic hydrolysis reveals their different health-promoting benefits such as antihypertensive activity, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. These oilseed proteins are becoming an essential part of meat and dairy alternatives along with protein-enriched bakery products, where they exhibit enhanced flavour, texture, structural stability, and nutritional value. Consequently, oilseed proteins are increasingly being used for drug delivery, and packaging systems in the pharmaceutical industry. Hence, this chapter highlights the utilisation of oilseeds in the production of protein concentrates and isolates with better nutritional value such that it meets the demand of growing population.

Pages: 28

Fruit proteins are identified as central elements in food science, biotechnology, and health studies because of their unique structural characteristics, varied sources, and extensive applications. The proteins, including globular, fibrous, and membrane-associated types, have different functional abilities. They are sourced from everyday fruits such as bananas and citrus, and underutilized species including jackfruit, avocado, and baobab. Interestingly, fruit proteins contain bioactive peptides with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities, which are useful for food and pharmaceutical purposes. Advances in proteomic methods like mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy have expedited the extraction, purification, and structural elucidation of these compounds. In food technology, fruit proteins play a role in enhanced emulsification, foaming, and gelling, and their pharmaceutical applications are being investigated as therapeutic agents and novel drug delivery systems. Exploratory studies also focus on their function in the management of chronic or long-term diseases, such as cardiovascular or heart conditions and diabetes, making them key ingredients of functional foods and nutraceuticals. In addition, the sustainable harvesting and scalable manufacture of fruit proteins are in harmony with the world’s efforts toward renewable and green bioproducts. This chapter explores the hierarchical structural properties of fruit proteins, their origin, and their diversified applications, highlighting their potential for transformation in fighting global issues in nutrition, medicine, and sustainability. Through the integration of recent breakthroughs and developing evidence, this chapter seeks to understand fruit proteins holistically and their contribution toward shaping future innovation.

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Approximately 80% of global protein production comes from plant sources. Over half of this plant-based protein is used as animal feed, with only around 10 kg of protein per individual obtained annually from meat, dairy, and eggs. Consequently, the increasing expenses related to raw materials and energy have rendered the cultivation and direct consumption of protein-rich plants an important global concern. Vegetable proteins, derived from various plants, are gaining recognition for their nutritional benefits, functional versatility, and sustainability. This chapter explores the structural properties of vegetable proteins, such as their amino acid configuration, secondary and tertiary structures, and characteristics including gelation, emulsification, and solubility. Key sources like legumes (soy, pea, lentil), cereals (wheat, rice, maize) and newer options such as quinoa, hemp, and algae are examined for their unique compositional characteristics. The chapter also examines their applications in food systems, discussing meat substitutes, dairy alternatives, baked products, and nutritional supplements. Additionally, it considers how vegetable proteins contribute to addressing global challenges like food security, changes in dietary habits, and environmental sustainability. Innovations in protein extraction, modification, and formulation are highlighted, along with challenges like allergenicity and sensory optimization, emphasizing the potential of vegetable proteins to transform modern food systems.

Pages: 31

Meat proteins, defined as the post-mortem constituents of animal tissues, are a critical source of high-quality, complete proteins, providing essential amino acids necessary for growth, repair, and maintenance in the human body. These proteins are classified into sarcoplasmic proteins (water-soluble, 25%–30%), myofibrillar proteins (salt-soluble, 50%–55%), and stromal proteins (insoluble, 10%–15%), each playing distinct functional and structural roles in muscle tissues. Collectively, these proteins constitute approximately 20%–25% of raw muscle tissue. The synthesis of meat proteins is regulated through the translation of mRNA on ribosomes, requiring a supply of amino acids, ATP, and enzymatic activity to produce polypeptide chains. This intricate process is influenced by genetic, nutritional, and hormonal factors, which directly impact the quality, texture, and nutritional value of meat. Meat proteins are of high biological value due to their complete amino acid profiles. Although these amino acids are targeted by reactive oxygen species leading to oxidative modifications that alter the physical and chemical attributes of meat, including tenderness, color, flavor, emulsification, and water-holding capacity. Beyond their structural roles, meat proteins provide bioactive peptides required for muscle repair, immune support, and metabolic functions. This chapter examines the mechanisms underlying meat protein synthesis, oxidation, and functionality, emphasizing their importance in improving meat quality.

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Fish proteins are high-quality, easily digestible proteins with a complete profile of essential amino acids and superior biological value compared to terrestrial sources. They are rich in sulphur-containing and branched-chain amino acids that support protein synthesis, muscle metabolism, and cellular functions. Bioactive peptides derived from fish proteins exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihypertensive, and immunomodulatory activities, enhancing their role beyond basic nutrition. Fish proteins are also important sources of omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), vitamins, and minerals that promote cardiovascular, cognitive, and immune health. Their unique functional properties, including gelation, emulsification, and foaming, enable wide applications in functional foods, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals, and biodegradable packaging. Processing methods such as enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation further enhance their bioactivity. With growing demand for sustainable and health-promoting ingredients, fish proteins represent a versatile resource for developing innovative products that address nutritional needs and support overall human health.

Pages: 30

Egg protein is a form of protein constructed from eggs. It is categorized as a complete protein source, which means it contains all nine essential amino acids that the human body cannot produce on its own. Egg protein is simple to digest, highly bioavailable, and high in branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs), with the maximum possible protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score. Egg protein has been presented to reduce malnutrition in developing countries, possibly increase child height, and protect against kwashiorkor. Egg protein has been found to help maintain skeletal muscle health and protect against sarcopenia. Egg protein is used in an extensive variety of culinary products, including protein powders, bars, and supplements, as well as pharmaceutical and skincare products. Egg protein is a high-quality protein source with numerous health benefits and applications, making it an ideal option for anybody seeking a reliable and efficient protein supplement. Egg protein may mitigate malnutrition, resulting in a lower calorie intake at the next meal and reduced body weight. Other protective benefits associated with egg protein addressed in this chapter include infection resistance, hypotension, and anticancer properties.