Pages: 17

The introduction of the book sets forth the author’s basic premise: that all varieties of American English are orderly and rule governed, and that, despite their differences, they are mutually intelligible because they share the same blueprint. That is, the floor plan—where the walls and essential systems are located—are the same for all varieties. Differences in American English varieties largely arise from where, within communities, speakers agree to put the furniture. No variety is inherently “better” or “more correct” than any other: the context of communication dictates which variety is the “best” one to use in that context. This book will provide students with a set of concepts and terminology so that they can talk about the structure of sentences, variations in sentence structure, and why one sentence structure might be better than another for allowing a speaker or writer to achieve their communicative goals. It will also emphasize three approaches to grammar: form, function, and meaning. The introduction continues with a summary of the content of the book and concludes with some guidance for students and instructors on how to use the exercises at the end of each chapter.

Pages: 13

Chapter 1 discusses the basic structure of sentences and introduces the part-of-speech categories and their related phrases. A sentence comprises a subject, predicate, and optional sentence modifiers. In turn, the subject is always a noun phrase or other nominal phrase or dependent clause and provides nominal meaning (telling who or what), while the predicate is always a verb phrase comprising a verb and its complements and modifiers. Sentence modifiers provide context for the sentence and can appear at the beginning or end, and often between the subject and predicate. Words, and their associated phrases, can be identified with eight “parts of speech”: open classes (we routinely create new ones) of content words (nouns, verbs, adjective, adverbs) and closed classes of function words (prepositions, pronouns, determiners, some adverbs, and conjunctions). Members of each lexical category are defined by their form, function, and meaning. Members of all lexical categories (except conjunctions) can form phrases, which commonly comprise a head word and complement(s) and/or modifiers as dependent constituents. Phrases may have the form of one lexical category but perform the function associated with a different lexical category.

Pages: 16

This chapter discusses nouns and noun phrases. Semantically, nouns are words that name things: people, places, animals, objects, ideas, or qualities. Nouns tell who or what. Nouns are also defined by four contrastive categories: proper/common; singular/plural; mass/count; and generic/specific. Common nouns can always be preceded by the determiner the, making it a good device for identifying nouns and noun phrases. Common count nouns can always be identified by whether they can be pluralized (form). Non-White Mainstream English varieties may drop the plural -s following a word identifying the amount as plural (e.g. fifty cent) or add it to regularize words (e.g. deers, childrens). A noun functions as the head of a noun phrase; a noun phrase may also include adjectival modifiers of the noun and a determiner phrase that specifies the noun. A noun phrase in turn may function as the subject of a sentence or dependent clause or as the complement of a verb or preposition. In these functions, a complete noun phrase can always be identified by replacement with a third-person pronoun, such as it, they, or them. A noun-phrase-in-form may function adjectivally (as a modifier of a noun) or adverbially (e.g. naming periods of time).

Pages: 18

This chapter discusses prepositions and prepositional phrases. Prepositions are function words that convey meaning about locations and movements in space and time; more abstract relations like possession, source, and origin; and other literal and metaphoric relationships (e.g. on my honor; by/on accident). A preposition functions as the head of a prepositional phrase and always requires a nominal, most often a noun phrase, as a complement. A prepositional phrase may function as an adjectival or an adverbial. As an adjectival, a prepositional phrase may function as a post-modifier of a noun. As an adverbial, a prepositional phrase may function as a modifier of a verb; a complement of a verb; a modifier of an adjective; or a sentence modifier. Preposition use is highly idiomatic, varying by region (e.g. wait on line versus wait in line) and generation, as witnessed by the increasing use of on accident by younger people, replacing the older by accident.

Pages: 21

This chapter discusses adjectives and adjective phrases, and determiners and determiner phrases. Adjectives are content words that, in form, may be gradable (e.g. big, bigger, biggest) or non-gradable (e.g. main). Non-White Mainstream English varieties often regularize irregular forms (e.g. baddest). An adjective functions as the head of an adjective phrase, which may include a pre-modifying adverb phrase and/or a post-modifying adverbial prepositional phrase. An adjective phrase may function as a modifier of a noun or a complement of a verb. As a modifier of a noun, an adjective phrase tells which or what kind of and is placed immediately before the noun. Determiners are a closed class of function words that function only as specifiers of nouns and appear only at the beginning of a noun phrase. A determiner phrase may comprise one or more determiners, the most common being the. Like adjectives, determiners provide information about the noun, marking specificity, possession, quantity, or precedence. Unlike adjectives, determiners are rarely gradable; are rarely modified by an intensifying adverb; and are not modifiers because they are not always optional. A noun phrase with the possessive suffix ’s becomes a determiner. In several varieties, them is used as a determiner (e.g. them books).

Pages: 21

This chapter discusses pronouns and pronoun phrases. Pronouns are a closed class of function words that stand in the place of a complete noun phrase or other nominal and may function in the same ways as noun phrases and other nominals. A pronoun must have a referent within the discourse, within shared knowledge or experience, or within the shared physical context of the speaker or writer and their audience. Some pronoun forms are marked for case (nominative; objective; possessive), number (singular; plural), person (first; second; third), gender (masculine; feminine; neuter; gender neutral), and animateness (animate; inanimate). Indefinite pronouns are the only sub-class that routinely can take both modifiers and determiners (e.g. a large one with sprinkles). Despite their similarities, possessive pronouns (e.g. mine) should not be confused with possessive determiners (e.g. my). Because there are so many irregularities in the White Mainstream English pronoun system, it is one of the portions of English grammar with the most diverse and distinctive range of forms, as speakers of different varieties strive to regularize possessive pronouns (e.g. mines), reflexive pronouns (e.g. hisself), and the plural of you (e.g. y’all; youse).

Pages: 54

This chapter discusses verbs: words that name actions. A complete verb may comprise one or more words. Finite verbs function as the head of verb phrases, which function as predicates in sentences or dependent clauses. Non-finite verbs (participles and infinitives) may function as heads of phrases. Participles may also function in complete finite verbs, along with auxiliary and semi-auxiliary verbs. Finite verb forms are marked for tense (present, past); modality (indicative, modal, imperative, subjunctive); aspect (perfect, progressive, imperfect, habitual); and voice (active, passive). Present tense, indicative mood, Ø-aspect, and active voice are the unmarked features of verbs. All other features are marked by changes in spelling (e.g. swim, swam); inflectional suffixes (e.g. baking, baked); or by auxiliary or semi-auxiliary verbs (e.g. be, have, will, hafta, start to). “Tense” marks the order of events in the discourse. “Modality” marks whether an event is actual or hypothetical. “Aspect” marks duration of an event in time. “Passive voice” shifts the sentence focus from the agent (the doer of the action) to the patient (the recipient). Because of the many irregularities in the English verb system, it exhibits a great diversity of non-White-Mainstream forms.

Pages: 42

This chapter discusses verb phrases. A verb phrase functions as a predicate in a sentence or dependent clause. A verb phrase comprises a complete verb, its adverbial modifiers, and any complement(s) required by the verb. There are hundreds of verb complementation patterns in English, the most common involving copular be (the most common main verb in English), which takes a nominal, adjectival, or adverbial subject complement. Also common are verbs whose complement includes a noun phrase or other nominal functioning as a direct object; such verbs are transitive and may be arranged in active or passive voice. Quotative verbs (e.g. say, whisper, tell) take reported speech as a complement. Phrasal verbs comprise a verb and, at a minimum, one particle; the particle is a word that might otherwise function as a preposition (e.g. beat up; look down on). Together, the verb-and-particle combination forms an idiom whose meaning is not simply the sum of its parts. There are thousands of phrasal verbs in English.

Pages: 21

This chapter discusses adverbs and adverb phrases. Adverbs are a mixed category of both content words (e.g. here, now, frequently) and common function words (e.g. very, just, not). Adverbs may be gradable (e.g. slowly, more slowly, most slowly) or non-gradable (e.g. now; too; very). An adverb functions as the head of an adverb phrase, which may also include a pre-modifying adverb phrase and/or a post-modifying adverbial prepositional phrase. Adverb phrases tell when, where, why, how, how much, how often, how long, and other versions of those sorts of information. According to traditional grammar, an adverb phrase may modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverb phrases may also modify whole sentences, dependent clauses, infinitive phrases, and participle phrases. Adverb phrases can also function as several different types of verb complement. The most common forms of negation involve placing the adverb not, or its contracted forms, with a verb. Some of the most highly marked features of non-White Mainstream English varieties involve negation, especially the non-WME but common word ain’t, which features in double negatives and multiple negation, also called “negative concord.”

Pages: 33

This chapter discusses conjunctions and conjoining punctuation. Conjunctions are a closed class of function words that are used to join together and separate phrases and clauses that have the same function within a sentence or clause. Coordinating conjunctions include for, and, or, but, nor, yet, and so (fanboys). Correlative conjunctions include paired sets, such as either … or, neither … nor, not only … but also, both … and, and whether … or. Several punctuation marks also often function as coordinating or correlative conjunctions, including commas, colons, semicolons, parentheses, dashes, hyphens, and virgules (slashes). These punctuation marks also have fixed mechanical usages, as in compound words, large numbers, dates, and web addresses. Subordinating conjunctions (e.g. before, since, until) are used to mark the beginning of an adverb clause (also called a “subordinate clause”) and join it to its container clause.

Pages: 55

This chapter discusses clauses. A clause contains a finite verb that acts as the head of a verb phrase (which functions as a predicate) and a nominal functioning as the subject of the verb, such that, in White Mainstream English, the subject nominal and the verb agree in number and person. The predicate must include all complements required by the verb. Clauses may be independent (i.e. a sentence) or dependent. The three kinds of dependent clauses are each marked by a special class of word: adjective (“relative”) clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun or other relative pro-word; noun clauses begin with expletives (that, whether, if) or wh—words; and adverb (“subordinate”) clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. In English, the default clause order is Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC), but we routinely rearrange that order: in independent clauses to create questions or inversions, and in dependent clauses to move a relative pro-word or other wh-word from its functional slot in the SVC order to the front of the clause to mark the beginning of the clause and connect it to its container.

Pages: 18

This chapter discusses the broad categories of nominals, adjectivals, and adverbials and offers a new way of categorizing adverbial constituents. Nominals are phrases and clauses that (1) perform nominal functions (e.g. subject, complement of a preposition, direct object) and (2) provide noun-like information (telling who or what). When they are performing nominal functions, complete nominals can be identified by being replaced with a third-person pronoun (e.g. she, him, it, they, this). Adjectivals are phrases and clauses that (1) perform adjectival functions (e.g. modifier of a noun, subject complement, object complement) and (2) provide adjective-like information (telling which or what kind of). Adverbials are phrases and clauses that (1) perform adverbial functions (e.g. modifier of a verb, adjective, adverb, or clause; verb complement) and (2) provide adverb-like information (telling when, where, why, how, how much, how often, how long, and other versions of those sorts of information). Adverbials can also be categorized in terms of their scope, movability, and whether they can serve as the focus of or answer to a question. Based on those criteria, adverbials can be categorized as subjuncts, adjuncts, disjuncts, conjunctive adverbials, and sentence modifiers.

Pages: 47

This chapter discusses non-finite verb phrases—participle and infinitive phrases—which may consist of a non-finite verb alone or may include modifiers and complements. Like dependent clauses, they have both a complex internal structure and function as a single constituent within a container phrase or clause. Participle and infinitive phrases may function as nominals, adjectivals, or adverbials and can perform most of the functions of other nominals, adjectivals, and adverbials. In structure, participle and infinitive phrases are like partial or incomplete predicates, lacking a preceding auxiliary verb to make them finite. As with a clause, participle and infinitive phrases always have an agent (a doer), which may be explicit or implied. To ensure that the reference of a participle or infinitive phrase is clear and to avoid dangling modifiers, a reader must be able to easily identify the agent of the non-finite verb. The complete participle or infinitive may include perfect, progressive, and passive auxiliary verbs and semi-modal and imperfect aspectual verbs. Participle and infinitive phrases may also be preceded by a variety of wh-words, expletives, and subordinating conjunctions to mark the beginning of the phrase, its relationship with the container constituent, and its function.

Pages: 3

This chapter presents students with a lengthy review exercise in which they will work through a single published essay from a major news magazine, identifying in turn all of the phrase and clause structures discussed in the book. This exercise serves to review and reinforce the terms and concepts presented in the book; to show students how much they have learned; and to engage in a close study of the ways in which the author of the essay uses grammatical structures to create patterns, rhythms, and rhetorical effects.