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The export-import trade of ornamental fishes and other aquatic organisms is an indicator of the global growth of ornamental fish and aquarium keeping hobby. The global export-import trade has changed significantly over the years. The total export value of ornamental fish and aquatic organisms which was US$ 21.35 million in the year 1976 involving 27 countries increased to ever highest value of US$ 395.97 million in the year 2021 involving 107 countries but again declined to US$ 330.48 million in the year 2022. The average annual growth rate of global export from 1976 to 2022 was estimated at 7% but shows a declining growth trend from 21.5% initially (1976–1981), to 10.1% (1982–1996), to 4.4% (1997–2011), and finally to −0.40% (2012–2022). Singapore which remained the leading exporter of ornamental fishes to the world for about 50 years lost its position to Japan since the year 2018. However, the USA is still retaining its position of leading importer though the import share is reduced. The share of marine fish and invertebrates which was insignificant in total global export during 1976–1981 increased to 28.3% in the year 2021. The growth of global ornamental fish trade, changes in the export-import growth trends, demand and supply patterns of exporting and importing countries, the reasons of changes in demand and supply, regulation of global export-import trade, etc., are discussed in detail in this chapter.

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The Indian aquarium industry had been growing very slowly since independence in the year 1947 to the end of the 20th century but it has grown very rapidly since the beginning of the 21st century. The total value of domestic aquarium trade has increased from INR 55 crore to INR 625 crore in the year 2021 and has been projected to grow to INR 5,000 crore at the end of the year 2030. The number of aquarium shops which were only a few and restricted to metro and major cities has presently grown to more than 8,000 with a presence in all the major towns of the country. The ornamental fish production which was earlier restricted to the states of West Bengal on the east coast and Maharashtra on the west coast of India is now practised in almost all the coastal states, many inland states, and even in several hilly states of the country. The number of hobbyists which was less than 0.1% has presently grown to about 1.78% and is projected to grow to 5% by the end of this decade. The contribution of India to global exports which was less than 0.5% all these years for the first time crossed 1% in the year 2021–2022. The evolution and growth of Indian aquarium industry from pre-juvenile to post-juvenile phase and future potential of the trade are discussed in this chapter.

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India is known globally for its export of various species of freshwater ornamental fishes of native origin which constitutes about 85% of the total export of ornamental fishes from the country. The rivers and streams of two biodiversity hotspots in the country: the North-East (NE) India and Western Ghats (WGs), are rich sources of diverse indigenous fish species such as Channa barca, C. aurantimaculata, C. bleheri, Puntius denisonii, P. filamentosus, P. ticto, Badis badis, Danio dangila, Botia dario among others. The NE region harbours around 420 freshwater fish species, while the WGs are home to over 320 species. However, the aquatic biodiversity of both these regions faces significant threats from various human activities. For instance, C. barca has recently been listed under Schedule II category of Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 2022 of India, highlighting conservation concerns. Moreover, the harvesting of P. denisonii is prohibited by Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala, due to conservation priorities. To address these challenges, collaborative efforts between fisheries research institutes and enterprising ornamental fish farmers have led to the development of captive breeding technologies of many of these species. This collaborative approach aims to sustainably manage and conserve India’s freshwater indigenous ornamental fisheries resources, including the threats they face and ongoing conservation efforts; this chapter provides a detailed account.

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The state of West Bengal situated on the east coast of India (Figure 4.1) is a leading state of fish and fisheries with abundant blessings of nature in terms of favourable climate, ample availability of quality water resources, and its geographical position (Ghosh et al., 2003). West Bengal is one of the important fish producing state of India where 1.2% of the total population is involved in fisheries and related activity (Korakandy, 2008). It is popular not only for producing food fish but also as a pioneer state for farming, domestic trade, and export of ornamental fishes.

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The state of Tamil Nadu on the south-east coast of India (Figure 5.1) boasts of a remarkable array of indigenous freshwater ornamental fishes sourced from the nearby Western Ghats, a biodiversity hotspot renowned for its aquatic life (Mogalekar and Canciyal, 2018). These freshwater species, ranging from vibrant labyrinth fish like gouramis to the colourful and diverse rasboras and barbs, contribute significantly to the region’s ornamental fish trade. Additionally, the state benefits from the expertise of local breeders and farmers who specialize in cultivating exotic ornamental fishes and some of these indigenous species, ensuring a sustainable and thriving sector.

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Kerala is the thirteenth largest state on the south-west coast of India, wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats (WGs). It is situated between 8°18′ northern latitude and 12°48′ eastern longitude covering an area of 38,863 km2 and coast line of 590 km (Figure 6.1). The Lakshadweep Sea is blessed with a rich biodiversity of marine fish and invertebrates while the WGs is considered one of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots, with high levels of biodiversity and endemism (Gadgil, 2011). A total of 41 west-flowing and 3 east-flowing rivers of Kerala originate from WGs having 320 freshwater fishes (Dahanukar and Raghavan, 2013) including 118 endemic species (Dahanukar et al., 2004). Kerala is the twenty-first most populus state in India with a population of 35.09 million and highest human development index (0.784), highest literacy rate (96.2%), and highest life expectancy. It is the second most urbanized state in country with 47.7% urban population (DES, 2024).

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India ranks eighth in the global megadiversity rankings with a biodiversity index of 301.63 (Nash, 2022). The kaleidoscope of Indian biodiversity constitutes four out of the 36 world’s biodiversity hotspots which are the Himalayas, Western Ghats, parts of the Indo-Burma region, and Sundaland (Olson and Dinerstein, 2002). The varied climatic, edaphic, and altitudinal variations provide a great range of ecological habitats for different flora and fauna to flourish and feature diverse biota with a high level of endemism. The mighty rivers of India such as Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, Narmada, Godavari, and Krishna shape the ecology and lives of the people residing on their banks. Several landlocked Indian states have great freshwater fish diversity that supports rural livelihoods through capture and culture fisheries. One among them is Bihar, which has large aquatic resources in terms of rivers, canals, floodplain wetlands, oxbow lakes, reservoirs, and ponds. This state has river plains of several Himalayan rivers including the mighty Ganga, Gandak, Kosi, Son, and Mahananda that constitute a span of 3,200 km.

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India is blessed with many ornamental fish species like loach, barbs, danio, snakeheads, trout, rasbora, gourami, catfish, clown fish, gobi etc. and is known in the global aquarium trade for wild-caught indigenous ornamental fishes for decades (Jayalal and Ramachandran, 2013). A few of the highly popular species of Indian origin in international aquarium trade are danios, barbs, snakeheads, etc. (Dey, 2016; Harrington et al., 2022). The share of indigenous ornamental species to the total export from India is 85% (Raja et al., 2019). Sahyadria denisonii was one single species from the Western Ghats of India that was once contributing 60%–70% of total export from India (Raghavan, 2010; Sekharan, 2017). The collection of indigenous fishes from wild has led to depletion of many species to unsustainable level in several countries (CEBPOL and NBA, 2018). The depletion of small indigenous fishes from the Western Ghats has also been attributed to aquarium trade (Raghavan, 2010) while there are several reasons like habitat destruction, sand mining, water flow obstruction, fishing for food purpose, unethical fishing methods etc. (Jain et al., 2022). Whatever may be the reason, stocks of many species of fish are depleting and wild collection is becoming difficult. Secondly, the availability of a specific variety of wild fish remains restricted to a particular region, a specific season and in limited quantity. Many a times it is not sufficient to meet the market demand. Hence, captive breeding of native fish species is very important for a sustainable trade of ornamental fishery and to conserve the natural fish stock. Some fishes breed naturally with ease, whereas others are bred by artificial techniques like hand stripping and hypophysation.

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The dwarf chameleon, Badis badis (Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822), is a small freshwater fish native to North-East India (Figure 9.1). It belongs to the family Badidae and part of the perch-like group. It is comprised of two genera: Badis with 24 species and Dario with 6 species. The main three species of Badis found in Tripura, India, are Badis badis, B. assamensis, B. blosyrus. The species is commonly known as dwarf chameleon and recognized for its distinctive features like a slender body, round head, single dorsal fin, and vibrant hues. The males exhibit striking shades of blue, red, and yellow, while the females typically display more subdued colors. The maximum length of dwarf chameleons is 5 cm. The species holds significant value in the aquarium trade due to its visually appealing and colorful patterns (Riehl and Baensch, 1996; Gupta and Ravindranath, 2016). It has emerged as one of the most sought-after native ornamental fish in both domestic and international aquarium trade (Dutta, 2013). In domestic trade, the fish is priced INR 8–12 per piece, while US$ 1–2 per piece in the export trade (Mahapatra et al., 2005; Bhattacharya et al., 2015). Historically, dwarf chameleons were once plentiful in the market as a common food fish sourced from natural riparian wetland habitats approximately 50–60 years ago (Mahapatra et al., 2005). However, the surge in demand and popularity has led to overexploitation of wild populations. This overexploitation poses a significant threat to the species’ sustainability and underscores the importance of implementing conservation measures to ensure its long-term survival. The fish has been recently classified as vulnerable by the National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) due to threats like climate change, habitat loss, and overfishing (Lakra et al., 2010) in India, though listed as “Least Concern” under IUCN (Chaudhry, 2010). The alarming decline of B. badis requires captive production of the fish to stabilize the natural population and supply to domestic and export ornamental fish trade.

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Ornamental aquaculture possesses huge export potential and increasing local demand, which makes it a lucrative industry for income generation in India. The country possesses diversified fresh and marine ornamental fish species, mainly sourced from natural waterbodies such as rivers, estuaries, lagoons, and reef ecosystems (Pabhu, 2021). But ornamental fish culture is restricted to the states of West Bengal (55%), Tamil Nadu (35%), North East (7%), Kerala (5%), and Maharashtra (3%) and a minimal portion from Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh (Sinha, 2020). Out of 250 indigenous ornamental fish species found in India, 155 fish species are being regularly exported and many of them have a very high demand. Despite harbouring rich diversity of ornamental fishes, India is still lagging in ornamental fish export with a contribution Rs. 8.4 crore (0.32%) only to global export. The domestic value of aquarium trade in India is about Rs. 555 crore annually with the potential of Rs. 5,000 crore expanding by 20% annually (Sinha, 2020).

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A highly nutritional and palatable feed is very essential during early life stages of ornamental fish for their survival, growth, and colouration. Live food is considered the best suitable option (Radhakrishnan et al., 2020; Prakash et al., 2023). Live food organisms are natural and nutritious source of food for fish larvae as they stimulate growth and development (Singh et al., 2023). Different types of live food organisms are Infusoria, Vinegar eel, Micro worms, Black worms, Brine shrimp, Moina, Daphnia, Tubifex worms, Blood worms etc. All these organisms are high in protein and other nutrients (Samat et al., 2020). The small size of all these live food helps fish larvae to efficiently capture them (Wan‐Mohtar et al., 2022). The movement and swimming of live food organisms aid to trigger the development of feeding reflexes in fish larvae. This is important for ensuring that fish larvae can feed properly and survive (Das et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2019).

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According to the United Nations (UN) estimates, the world population will be 8.5 billion by 2030 (ESCAP, 2022). By the end of this decade, there will be more than 1.5 billion people living in India, and this number will rise until 2064. Population pressure leads to several threats like water paucity, desertification, high food crisis, and salinization. As a priority, the second goal of the 17 UN sustainable development goals (SDG) is SDG 2: “Zero hunger”: To end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture. To meet the demand of the growing food crisis there is a need for sustainable culture systems. Aquaponic system offers the solution for the problem. Aquaponic system is an intensive, resource-efficient, closed-loop agricultural food production system, that symbiotically integrates aquaculture and hydroponics to produce fish and multiple cash crops with minimal area, reduced water, and fertilizer inputs. The wastes (faecal, uneaten feed) produced in the fish culturing system are converted by nitrifying bacteria into a form that plants can utilize for their growth, acting like a biofilter and remediating the culture water before recirculating into the fish tank. Aquaponics technology was developed in the 1970s focused on integrated fish production systems with vegetables. Now aquaponics is widely popular in many countries for commercial scale application mainly for many food fish like Oreochromis niloticus (Graber and Junge, 2009), catfishes (Endut et al., 2009), Oncorhynchus mykiss (Forchino et al., 2017), Cyprinus carpio (Shete et al., 2017), Lates calcarifer (Stathopoulou et al., 2021), and Piaractus mesopotamicus (Pinho et al., 2018). The culture of many species of ornamental fishes like Koi carps, Goldfish, gourami, and livebearers is also being practised in aquaponic system in many countries like Italy, etc. The demand for ornamental fishes is regularly increasing in India as the hobby of aquarium keeping is growing continuously (Jain et al., 2016), and the trend has been further bolstered by the inclusion of the ornamental fisheries sector as one of the focus areas under Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojna (PMMSY). However, the increasing urbanization in existing ornamental fish farming hubs of India like West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerla demands effective utilization of resources for high profitability. This has resulted in the integration of aquaponic technology for the culture of ornamental fishes at many farming facilities.

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Fish pigmentation is a complex and multifaceted biological phenomenon, encompassing a wide array of colours and patterns observed across numerous species. This vibrant display results from the interaction of various pigments and structural elements within the skin, scales, and fins of fish. Fish pigmentation plays crucial roles in survival and reproduction. It aids in camouflage, allowing fish to blend into their surroundings and evade predators. Bright and distinct colour patterns are also used for communication, helping fish to establish territory, attract mates, and interact with others of their species (Newport et al., 2017). Additionally, pigmentation can serve as an indicator of health and vitality, with vibrant colours often signalling good fitness and reproductive potential (Shastak and Pelletier, 2023).

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Ornamental fish keeping has been known since antiquity, with evidence dating back to 500 BCE (Morgan, 2009). Ornamental fish is a catch-all term for aquatic animals kept in aquariums, including fish, and invertebrates such as crustaceans, molluscs, corals, etc. The hobby of ornamental fish keeping and the culture activities through tank breeding and farm production are growing throughout the twenty-first century with improved techniques (Brunner, 2003). The sector has been lauded for its ability to create jobs, alleviate poverty, and contribute to the economic growth of the country (Devi et al., 2016). The global ornamental fish market was worth US$ 6,800 million in 2019 and is expected to reach US$ 11,336.47 million by 2025, growing at a rate of over 10% (Report Linker, 2021). The exact number of species currently available in the global aquarium trade is difficult to count due to the unorganized and fragmented supply system, but it is estimated to be over 6,000 (Morgan, 2009; Prakash et al., 2017). Most of the ornamental fishes in the aquarium trade are freshwater and farm-raised, with Asian countries accounting for more than half of the supply (Chapman, 2000; Cato and Brown, 2003).

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The introduction of new species of fishes to a geographical area or aquatic ecosystem, which are not native to them, from some other geographical area or aquatic ecosystem has been a very old practice (Welcome, 1988; Shetty et al., 1989; Sugunan, 1995). These non-native species once introduced to the new environment are referred as exotic or alien (Root et al., 2013). The non-native species have been introduced mainly for food purpose, sports, and aquarium trade (Padilla and Williams, 2004; De Silva et al., 2006). A few of the common fishes introduced in India for food purpose are Common carp, Cyprinus carpio; Grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon Idella; Silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix; Big head cap Aristicthys nobilis; Rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss; Tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus; African catfish, Clarias gariepinus; Roop Chanda (Pacu), Piaractus brachypomus; Pangasius, Pangasiandon hypophthalmus; and many others (Bijukumar, 2000; Singh et al., 2013, 2014; Sandilyan, 2016). A few of these species were primarily introduced in aquaculture system and immensely helped to increase the fish production but somehow, some of these escaped into the open water bodies, established a breeding population, and gradually dominated over the native species to the extent of extinction of the latter as in case of Hypophthalmicthys molitrix in Gobindsagar reservoir in Himachal Pradesh, India (Kaushal, 2007). Orechromis mossambicus was introduced in India in 1952 as food fish (Sugunan, 1995). It gradually became a dominant species in large numbers of reservoir adversely affecting the population of native species (Sugunan, 1995; Lakra et al., 2008). The presence of O. mossambicus is now reported from the rivers and streams of the North-East (NE) (Goswami et al., 2012) and the Western Ghats (WGs) (Krishnakumar et al., 2009) India. Both the NE and the WGs are known as two biodiversity hotspots of India (Gadgil, 2011; Kurup and Radhakrishnan, 2006; Raghavan et al., 2008a; Goswami et al., 2012). The presence of exotic fish species has been listed as one of the reasons of depleting fish biodiversity of the WGs (Jain et al., 2022).

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The North-East (NE) Hill region of India which includes states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Tripura is known as a biodiversity hotspot for the presence of a large number of indigenous fishes (Ghosh and Lipton, 1982; Mahapatra, 2023; Mahapatra et al., 2004). Many of these indigenous fishes are of ornamental importance with high demand in the global aquarium trade (Ghosh et al., 2002; Mahapatra et al., 2003a–d, 2005). Fish is an integral part of the food and feeding habits of local people in NE (Mukhopadhyay, 2019; Sarkar and Lakra, 2010) even including small fishes which have become popular in the aquarium trade (Mahapatra et al., 2005). The local fishermen have developed several eco-friendly traditional methods to collect these fish efficiently and easily from rivers and streams both for food and aquarium trade (Mahapatra, 2016). These artisanal fishing methods consist of small seines, dip nets, a variety of small trap nets, gears, and even hand picking.

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The ornamental fish production in India was initially confined to the coastal states of West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Kerala, as individuals from these states were the only skilled people in production and trading activities. Later, recognizing the potential in the sector, the Government of India (GOI) encouraged commercial-scale production across the country. Fisheries developmental agencies under the GOI envisaged schemes to benefit stakeholders in the sector from time to time. The first mega project “Rainbow Revolution” was launched by the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), Ministry of Commerce and Industry, GOI in 2007–2008 to provide financial assistance to boost ornamental fish production in India. It was followed by another scheme by National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB), Department of Fisheries (DOF), Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, GOI in 2009–2010. The scheme of MPEDA was discontinued from 2015 to 2016 while that of NFDB from 2019 to 2020. A new scheme “Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojna” (PMMSY) was launched by DOF in 2020–2021 with a proposed investment of Rs. 20,050 crore for the development of aquaculture and fisheries in the country. The ornamental fisheries was recognized as a focus area in the scheme with a provision of Rs. 576 crore investment.

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The economic growth and social development of any nation are mirrors of the knowledge and skills of its citizens. Nations with higher knowledge and skills can effectively address challenges, create new opportunities, and capitalize on them (Hanushek and Woessmann, 2015). Education and training, whether formal or informal, are two important channels for acquiring knowledge and skills. However, there is a fundamental difference between education and training, specifically formal education. Higher formal education helps individuals gain knowledge, broaden their vision, and improve their analytical capacity, while training helps acquire specific skills for performing activities. According to the 70-20-10 rule postulated by education and training experts, only 10% of adult learning occurs through classroom teaching, while 70% is acquired through practical experience and 20% through interaction with others (Lombardo and Eichinger, 2006).

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Madurai is an important industrial district in the state of Tamil Nadu on the south coast of India with a total area of 3,741 km2. It is located between 77° to 78°30″ eastern longitude and 9°30″ to 10°30″ northern latitude. The district lies in the southeast of the Western Ghats, a biodiversity hot-spot (Figure 19.1). The total population of the district was 24.00 lakh in 2011 with 44.7% urban population grown to 35.83 lakh in 2023 with 60.8% urban population. Madurai is a well-known district due to the presence of Meenakshi Sundareswaran temple. The district is characterized by Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate with temperature range of 26.3°C–42°C during summer (March–July) and 18°C–29.6°C during winter months (November–February). The average annual rainfall of the district is 953 mm with 158 rainy days and maximum rainfall during the months of August to October. Vaigai Reservoir with a water spread area of 2,644.38 ha is the major reservoir in the district built on Vaigai river. Gundara is another important river in the district. The literacy rate in the district was 83.45% during 2011 census with per capita annual income of Rs. 63,996.

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I was an aquarium hobbyist from my school days. I purchased my first aquarium of size 2 × 1 × 1 ft3 in 1978 when I was studying in class seventh. My first fish were Pearl Gourami, Angel fish and Gold fish. The total cost of the aquarium was about Rs 20, which was a big amount during those days. When I brought my first aquarium, there were not many aquarium shops in the city of Pune (Maharashtra, India), and the choice of fish and aquarium gadgets available in the market was also limited. But it was enough to sustain the passion for a hard-core hobbyist like me. I used to spend most of my time sitting by the side of aquarium whenever I was at home or maybe I used to stay at home mostly, to spend time watching the behaviour and movements of fishes in the aquarium. I used to think of buying many numbers of aquarium and more numbers of fish every time but could not dare to ask my father for the extra money as I was already over-spending and sometimes reprimanded for this. At this moment, I used to dream of owning a large ornamental fish farm with most beautiful fishes in my aquarium.

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Today, everyone looks at me as a successful entrepreneur in aquarium business and many allied verticals with several firsts attached to me. But when I look back into my past, I feel the hardships confronted on multiple fronts to be what I am today. To begin my life journey, let me share, I was born in a lower middle-class family, had a very simple upbringing and an ordinary schooling. During school days science was the subject that made me curious and interested, I decided to graduate and build a career in agricultural life sciences.

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I was born and grew at GKM Colony, Chennai, just 1 km away from Kolathur. In 1980s GKM Colony was the main aquarium breeding centre in Tamil Nadu. All my neighbours were ornamental fish breeders. They were breeding and growing many varieties of ornamental fishes like Goldfish, Koi Carps, Mollies, Bettas, Guppies, Tetras, Barbs, Gouramies etc. and supplying to aquarium shops at Moore Market, near Chennai Central Railway Station. I spent my childhood with many ornamental fish farmers and their children. So, ornamental fish got infused in my blood or possibly integrated in my genes as most of our childhood games were based on identification of fishes, collecting feed for fishes, discussing about fishes, collecting ornamental category live fish from natural resources, i.e., lakes and ponds near Chennai, with my senior aquarists, and even celebrating the birthdays of newly born fishes. I nurtured my love for ornamental fishes by purchasing a small aquarium on my small savings and fish from our neighbour farms having backyard ornamental fish breeding units.