Pages: 166

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 15

Seafood products are widely accepted for their high nutritional properties. However, seafood is susceptible to microbial and chemical spoilage, making it essential to perform analysis on the product to ensure safety and quality. In this chapter, we discussed the importance of analysis in seafood and seafood products, the variability of seafood products, and the basic concepts of seafood analysis.

Pages: 9

Seafood contains valuable proteins, and the contents and properties of these proteins are important both for the nutritional value of seafood and for different quality aspects of the seafood and seafood products. A wide range of different analytical methods can be used to determine the amount of, the composition of, and the functional properties of the seafood proteins. These can be used to follow changes taking place during processing and storage. This can be used for the optimization of seafood processing and utilization.

Pages: 45

Delving into the depths of seafood exploration, this book section uncovers the power of advanced proteomics techniques to disentangle the intricate protein composition of seafood and explore its diverse biological components. It highlights the importance of seafood in the contemporary food industry and the transformative insights gained from proteomics analysis. The section explains how cutting-edge tools such as mass spectrometry (MS) and bioinformatics have revolutionized the field, allowing researchers to study seafood proteins with unparalleled precision. It explores practical applications of proteomics, such as detecting spoilage markers, identifying allergenic proteins, and ensuring product authenticity and traceability, thus ensuring consumer health and food safety. Additionally, it showcases how proteomics helps understand seafood quality attributes, including taste and texture, and post-harvest processes. By unraveling the mysteries of seafood, proteomics opens doors for innovation and sustainability in aquaculture and fisheries, leading to personalized nutrition and the development of new value-added products.

Pages: 33

Endogenous enzymes in fish and shellfish are naturally occurring enzymes in these species that have several modes of action such as protein degrading, lipid degrading, carbohydrate degrading, nucleic acid degrading, and other enzymes. The activity of endogenous enzymes affects the overall quality of fish and shellfish in vivo and during postmortem handling, storage, and processing. The main quality changes due to these enzymatic reactions include the softening of muscle, off-odor, off-flavor, and discoloration. Reactions catalyzed by some endogenous enzymes impart pleasant seafood flavors like umami. Some endogenous enzymes have been isolated and purified from fish/shellfish raw materials for use in seafood processing, such as surimi and fish sauce manufacturing. The main endogenous enzymes, their enzymological properties, their role in fish quality and processing, and their applications are discussed.

Pages: 11

The autolytic process derived from tissue enzymatic activity and lipid oxidations contributes to fish maturation and subsequent spoilage. ATP molecule is rapidly degraded to adenosine monophosphate and afterward to inosine monophosphate which is accumulated in postharvest fish. The following inosine monophosphate dephosphorylation to obtain inosine is mainly autolytic and occurs at a slower rate during the first stage of cold storage. Inosine is then transformed into hypoxanthine by the action of the enzyme nucleoside phosphorylase. The analysis of nucleotides and nucleosides is useful for their use as a freshness indicator. This chapter summarizes the different techniques that may be used for the analysis of nucleotides and nucleosides in seafood and seafood products.

Pages: 20

Marine lipids are known to provide high contents of important components for the human diet that have shown a positive role in preventing certain human diseases, including cardiovascular ones. The approach to the analysis of lipid composition in a given marine sample will depend on the substrate amount and the equipment available but also on the amount of information required. The present chapter focuses on describing the analytical methodology necessary to assess the lipid composition of marine species on the basis of requirements requested by food technologists and nutritionists. Different preliminary steps are addressed (extraction, purification, handling, storage, quantification, and saponification) followed by the determination of fatty acid and lipid classe composition, including non-saponifiable matter and stereospecific analysis. The employment of different kinds of traditional (column, thin-layer, and high-performance liquid chromatography) and advanced (nuclear magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry, and supercritical fluid chromatography) analytical tools is described.

Pages: 9

Marine lipids have a high content of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids; however, they are also highly susceptible to lipid oxidation. Lipid oxidation generates a wide variety of different compounds making it challenging to measure. Degree of lipid oxidation is usually measured as a combination of level of primary and secondary oxidation products. Peroxide value (PV) is the most used to determine primary oxidation products, while anisidine value and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances are the most used to determine secondary oxidation products. The methods have different challenges, including the effect of different interfering substances in the samples and also the wide range of different products that are formed.

Pages: 22

Analysis of volatile compounds in various marine resources and seafood during storage has shown that compounds derived from oxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids are responsible for the characteristic fish odour. Their origin and formation have been partly elucidated, where membrane bound phospholipids play a key role as precursors. Volatile microbial metabolites as indicators of spoilage can be monitored to determine the quality of fish products. Profiles of volatiles offer possibilities to perform multivariate prediction of quality. However, different handling and processing influences the proliferation of volatiles, depending on the dominating specific spoilage organisms and oxidative processes during storage. As a result, varying levels of volatiles develop in different marine resources and seafood causing different characteristic aroma. Herein are some examples to demonstrate the role of key volatile compounds in odour quality changes in chilled cod and haddock, boiled cod, and in washed cod model system. Additionally, the influence of processing on key volatiles and odour development in smoked salmon and salted cod are presented, and key volatiles of seaweed contributing to characteristic marine flavours are highlighted.

Pages: 94

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 21

Seafood and seafood products microstructure can be studied using different techniques as light microscopy (LM) and electron microscopy (EM). The traditional LM techniques used for this type of food are bright-field and confocal scanning laser microscopy (CLSM). EM techniques refer mainly to scanning electron microscopy (SEM), cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The main advantage of EM techniques is that they allow us to observe the sample at a much higher resolution than with LM techniques. Other emerging microscopy techniques like scanning probe microscopy, X-ray tomography, Raman spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) allow food scientists and engineers to inspect the food microstructure non-destructively or with considerably less sample preparation This chapter provides an overview of the microscopy techniques used for studying seafood and seafood products. The microstructure of fresh and processed fish, shellfish, and algae is also discussed in the chapter.

Pages: 8

Sensing technologies are provided with new prospects as well as with challenges as analytical methods. They also contribute with the development of new tools to analyse and monitor the supply and value chains. The wide range of data analytics methods such as machine learning (ML) and chemometrics has also aided to effectively manage and optimise the composition and quality of fish and seafood products by creating mathematical models that allowed to better understand the complexity of these food systems. Advances in the field of digital technologies, portable sensing devices, data analytics (e.g. classification, machine learning, modelling), and internet of things (IoT) have leveraged the development of large-scale and robust applications to better monitor both the seafood supply and value chains. This chapter presents with a brief background on the use of vibrational spectroscopy combined with data analytics, as well as provide with examples from different authors on seafood applications (e.g. freshness, composition, authenticity).

Pages: 33

Seafoods, especially fish, are the preferred products in healthy diets due to their high content of protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and a variety of vitamins and minerals. On the other hand, they are susceptible to deterioration, and thus, attention has been paid to methods to determine freshness of seafood. Freshness is an important attribute when assessing the quality of seafood and is of great concern in the seafood industry. There is no sole reliable method for the evaluation of the freshness of seafood. Therefore, biochemical, physical, and microbiological methods along with sensory methods have been applied by commercial seafood companies. This chapter will give up to date information on the existing and recent innovative methods used for determination of seafood freshness, including sensory, physical, microbial, chemical, and biochemical assessments.

Pages: 9

Seafood product name and origin labelling is legally required due to the wide variety of fresh and processed products available. It is necessary to develop analytical methods to verify the authenticity of food labels. The species and geographic origin of seafood products can be effectively detected through the use of DNA base sequence analyses. This chapter presents the background of the seafood product labelling system in Japan and describes the development of DNA base sequence analyses for fish and shellfish and how they can be applied to detect their species and geographic origin.

Pages: 21

Smoking is the oldest food preservation technique. Coupled to salting and drying steps, it allows to decrease the microorganisms activity. Moreover, wood smoke phenolic components are known as being antioxidants. Simultaneously, wood smoke imparts desired organoleptic characteristics such as smoky flavour. However, smoking process has two main inconveniences: the production of carcinogenic contaminants—polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons—during the incomplete pyrolysis of wood used to produce smoke and the release of smokes in the atmosphere. The legislation and the organoleptic quality of smoke flavourings (SFs) and products treated by SFs constitute critical points which show the necessity of better improvement and harmonisation of this technology.

Pages: 146

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 24

This chapter describes the most common analytical methods for determining proximate composition and calories of seafood and the importance of such data. Seafood represents a broad group of food including species of different tropic levels with different degrees of processing. The term proximate composition comprises content of protein, lipids, carbohydrates, ash, and water. This chapter discusses advantages and disadvantages of these destructive and nondestructive methods. Nutritional data are commonly used on food labels, and the European Union is now introducing a harmonized mandatory front-of-pack nutritional labelling system to make it easier for consumers to make health choices. Such systems will need a good basis of data and reliable compositional analysis. Several of the methods presented in this chapter are traditional methods still in use while others are newly developed.

Pages: 20

The analysis of amino acids from seafood proteins requires an adequate hydrolysis method, like acid hydrolysis with HCl 6 N at 110°C for 22 h or 145°C for 4 h, with an oxidation protective agent, such as phenol, and taking care of avoiding the presence of oxygen. Some particular amino acids may require specific hydrolysis conditions. In the case of the free essential amino acids profile of a given seafood, resolution power and selectivity are the most important factors to consider. The highest resolution is obtained by gas chromatography with capillary column technique, but it requires tedious and time-consuming sample derivatization. In general, cation-exchange and post-column derivatization or RP-HPLC pre-column derivatization techniques are the preferred methods. Although the cation-exchange method is still widely used, reverse-phase chromatography with prior derivatization with o-phthaldialdehyde, AccQ Tag, or phenylisothiocyanate is the most chosen for the analysis of amino acids in seafood. The introduction of mass detectors in laboratories expanded the use of HILIC columns, which are very well compatible with this detection mode.

Pages: 36

Marine-derived protein hydrolysates and bioactive peptides are receiving increased interest for their human health-promoting effects. In fact, biopeptides are extensively described in the literature to be owned with strong activities that may treat and/or prevent different diseases. Current trends are addressed toward the production and purification methods of bioactive peptides, which are delicate and almost performed at laboratory scale and limited their large-scale production for marketing purposes. Besides in vitro and in vivo experiments, in silico studies based on simulation using bioinformatics strategies are providing large amounts of data related to the screening of peptide activity, the production method (enzyme(s) and protein parent selection), structure–activity relationship, and bioavailability, resulting in a new cost-effective scientific strategy. However, in silico findings should be confirmed in vitro after peptide synthesis and addressed to clinical assays. In this sense, the present chapter provides an overview on the recent researches on the production of seafood-derived hydrolysates and biopeptides, their structural characteristics involved in the studied biological activities, and their potential applications in food and nutraceutical areas.

Pages: 5

Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food for humans. Seafood is an important source of protein in many diets around the world, especially in coastal areas. Oxidation in seafood starts immediately after slaughtering and continues during the postmortem aging. Moreover, muscle is converted into meat, and even during storage and processing, oxidation can occur. Several factors influence oxidation in seafood. To confront the problem of oxidation, antioxidant systems are required. Various biochemical defense mechanisms, including enzymatic systems and nonenzymatic antioxidants, protect the cellular components from oxidative damage. In addition, there is a growing interest in the application of synthetic and natural antioxidants in seafood. In this chapter, the antioxidant systems are summarized both found in seafood and added as natural or synthetics to seafood.

Pages: 22

During a speech in London in 1906, Frederick Gowland Hopkins (1861–1947) described what is now known as the “vitamin theory.” Hopkins alluded to some nutritional research he’d done that suggested: “…no animal can live upon a mixture of pure protein fat, and carbohydrate, and even when the necessary inorganic material is carefully supplied the animal still cannot flourish.” Vitamins are natural nutrients that are required for survival. Vitamins are required for proper body function. Most vitamins are impossible to create on our own, at least not in sufficient quantities to meet our needs. As a result, they must be obtained through our diet. Vitamins are divided into two categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins. A, C, D, E, and K, as well as the B vitamins thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), cyanocobalamin (B12), biotin, and folate/folic acid, are all known vitamins.

Pages: 17

Minerals are elements found in different quantities in the earth’s crust in different parts of the globe. They are found in biological systems in trace amounts. The importance of trace elements in living systems has been recognized in the recent past. Their deficiency causes certain diseases, while their excess damages the vital organs. These elements like manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, and zinc are essential constituents of several enzymes or vitamins and help in the regular flow of energy and digestion of food. Many diseases can be cured by a regular supply of trace elements through a balanced diet. Approximately 30 elements are known to be essential to life. These elements in combination with several small inorganic molecules and organic polymers play an important role in the regular flow of energy information, materials, and morphology. Current analysis techniques of minerals and trace elements are discussed.

Pages: 20

This chapter covers the main aspects of fatty acids analysis in fish, seafood, and aquaculture products. The first part of the chapter aims to provide general information about the structure and the classification of lipids and fatty acids commonly found in seafood and aquaculture products, introducing their functional role in human nutrition and their relevance in the field of food authenticity as biomarkers of origin. The second part of the chapter focuses on analytical issues, covering all the steps of the analysis of fatty acids, from lipid extraction to fatty acids separation and detection. Particularly, in the second part, the chapter introduces both traditional and novel analytical methods employed in fatty acids analysis of seafood and aquaculture products.

Pages: 136

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 22

The color appearance of seafood and seafood products is an essential quality attribute according to which the consumers judge their preference. However, the color of seafood is not stable, in that it changes with decreasing freshness or during processing, storage, distribution, etc. The color of seafood greatly influences consumer perception and purchase decisions since consumers often associate certain colors with freshness, taste, and quality. Accurate color measurement contributes to the overall quality control, consumer satisfaction, and market competitiveness of seafood and seafood products. An additional advantage of color measurement is the fact that the measuring technique is portable and not expensive, and can therefore be applied on a wide scale. Therefore, color measurement of seafood and seafood products is relevant for assessing quality and meeting consumer expectations.

Pages: 16

The acceptability of fish and fish products by consumers depends to a large extent on their texture characteristics, and these are affected by many interrelated factors. Sensory evaluation of texture is difficult to perform, so alongside with the development of sensory methods, instruments and tests have been designed and applied for measuring the textural characteristics of fish and fish products. This chapter describes different instrumental texture measurements as applied in fish and fish products such as Kramer, Warner-Bratzler, puncture, tensile and compression tests, texture profile analysis, and viscoelastic methods, with examples on their use in a selected number of conditions. For those products in which the integrity of the fish muscle is maintained, its complex structure imposes some restrictions on the application of some of the tests. Except for the quality control, in which it is needed to perform simple and fast tests, for most applications, the combination of more than one method can be of great value.

Pages: 29

Identification and quantification of the chemical compounds that comprise the aroma of seafood and seafood products is an important task, mostly employed to define the quality and often the safety level of those products. This chapter reports the numerous analytical methods and scientific papers that have been published in relation to the assessment of the aroma in seafood and seafood products. While the typical and traditional methods of analysis are reported (e.g Extraction with SPME or SAFE and subsequent analysis with GC–MS), other novel methods with great potential are also discussed (e.g. GC–IMS, LC–MS).

Pages: 20

The Quality Index Method is a sensory method as an objective measure of the quality of the fishes at all the key stages of the fishery chain, from catch to consumer. The Quality Index Method (QIM) is based on a structured scaling for quality measurements and provides accurate and precise information concerning the freshness and a prediction of the remaining shelf life for seafood and fishes. The method is discussed and a literature survey is given of QIM schemes for a wide variety of seafood.

Pages: 15

Sensory analysis of seafood has for years played a natural part of the seafood chain to manage the sensory quality throughout the whole processing chain. This chapter describes sensory analysis with a focus on objective measurements. In sensory analysis, appearance, odor, flavor, and texture are evaluated using the human senses of vision, smell, taste, touch, and hearing. The different senses are described and the conditions and demands for making an objective sensory analysis are explained. Furthermore, it presents how to make a vocabulary for objective characterization of a seafood product, including tables with attributes for appearance, odor, taste, and texture.

Pages: 12

Sensory analysis is used in quality control, quality assurance, and product development in the fish sector. Objective tests, including discriminative (triangle test and forced choice), descriptive (profiling and structured scaling), and subjective consumer testing, are used. In this chapter, the focus is on objective descriptive sensory analysis, which are analytical measurements of the intrinsic quality of the seafood product. There will be a detailed description of the demands for making an objective sensory analysis. The preparation of samples of different seafood is unique for an objective sensory profile and will be described in the chapter, as well as examples of how it is done. The chapter will round off with examples of the sensory characterization of seafood.

Pages: 20

The success of seafood products on the market is heavily dependent on their sensory performance. Thus, research techniques involving measurements obtained from consumers are crucial to gauging market potential. Numerous methods are available for the sensory evaluation of seafood products, which can be broadly categorized into objective (analytical) and subjective (affective) measurements. This chapter describes a wide range of methods used in the sensory and consumer sciences. Methods covered include descriptive techniques, discrimination testing, and temporal methods, as well as hedonic and preference testing and others. Where possible, the methods are exemplified with studies on seafood products, and those that have not yet been utilized in seafood products but have strong potential are also described. Finally, the chapter outlines important considerations for planning sensory and consumer research in order to maximize the usefulness of the results collected.

Pages: 158

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 15

Seafood spoilage by specific spoilage microorganisms is dynamic, hence, no consensus yet on the indicator bacteria to use in monitoring seafood spoilage. A combination of both microbial and other spoilage indicators such as volatile organic compounds will therefore be of great help in the seafood industry. However, it should be noted that the equipment required for the detection of spoilage bacteria and volatile organic compounds could be expensive. There is a need for the development of non-destructive, non-invasive, less expensive, and less laborious methods.

Pages: 26

Spoilage is a natural phenomenon that leads to the deterioration of seafood quality. Enzymatic activity, autolytic process, lipid oxidation, and microbial growth and activity can occur in fish tissues and cause undesirable changes in the sensory attributes. The major cause of muscle food spoilage is microbial growth and metabolism, mainly by specific or ephemeral spoilage organisms (SSOs/ESOs), resulting in the formation of a plethora of metabolites such as amines, sulfides, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, ethyl esters, and organic acids, with unpleasant and unacceptable off-odors and off-flavors. To determine the level of fish spoilage, sensory, microbiological, molecular, and chemical analyses are widely used. Over the last years, the introduction of next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, such as Illumina sequencing, brought the evolution in the exploration of the microbial ecology of seafood revealing microorganisms that were never found in seafood before; however, our knowledge about the dynamics of SSOs/ESOs was not changed dramatically compared to the culture-dependent molecular approach. Pseudomonas; Shewanella; Photobacterium; Psychrobacter; Pseudoalteromonas; Aeromonas; Brochothrix; and lactic acid bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Carnobacterium remained as the most frequently found SSOs/ESOs in seafood. However, all these methodologies and technologies are laborious and time-consuming. At the same time, stakeholders require faster, more accurate, and cost-effective ways to assess freshness/spoilage status of seafood. To address these requirements, researchers are now developing intelligent research-led tools and attempting to establish extremely rapid and user-friendly non-invasive technologies. The establishment of such intelligent tools will contribute not only to the seafood quality assurance, but also to the sustainable development goals and one health initiative.

Pages: 7

Predictive microbiology involves the use of mathematical models to describe microbial responses to intrinsic and extrinsic conditions such as pH, and storage temperature. It is used to predict the shelf-life and spoilage of different foods including seafood. Predictive modelling of seafood spoilage is an important tool for the food industry to ensure the safety and quality of seafood products. Seafood products are widely acknowledged as some of the most perishable foods, with a relatively short shelf-life. Maintaining the quality of seafood is a key concern for food businesses that deal with seafood products, given the varying shelf life of seafood products, which can be affected by factors like initial microbiological quality, seasonality, feeding, and handling.

Pages: 22

The number of bacterial gastroenteritis associated with seafood products has increased considerably during last decades. Among the bacterial pathogens that can produce gastroenteritis associated with seafood products, three can be considered a primary threat: the enteropathogenic Vibrio, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella spp. Microbiological quality control programs are being increasingly applied throughout the seafood production chain in order to minimize the risk of infection for consumers. In this chapter, we will revise the most relevant aspect of the detection strategies developed for those main bacterial pathogens.

Pages: 30

The growth of the global population throughout the 21st century not only signifies increased exploitation of seas and oceans, but also of rivers and lakes, to obtain food. This will consequently increase the probability of transmission of parasites to men by the consumption of seafood; their risks are detailed in this chapter. Foodborne zoonoses are produced by ingesting raw or undercooked fish and other seafood products. It is of particular concern that high-risk foods are becoming increasingly popular, such as those from some regions of East Asia and South America, which have spread throughout the world and have consequently increased the risk of these parasitises occurring in humans. This chapter also includes the main groups of marine, brackish, and freshwater fish and invertebrates that host parasites that can cause diseases in humans and highlight the life cycles and effects of the most important species. The impact of global change on ecosystems and variations in the abundance and density of marine mammal and fish populations due to fishing exploitation are some of the factors that could influence the extent of these parasites.

Pages: 10

Foodborne diseases impact food production and public health systems. Food contamination by enteric viruses is an emerging concern in the seafood industry as they are very resistant to disinfection and can contaminate food in primary production sites (crops, livestock, and bivalve mollusk production areas), as well as along the food supply chain (slaughterhouses, industries, and food retailers). The analysis of viral contamination in food is hampered by the diversity of the sample matrices, of viral pathogens, and the presence of inhibiting substances of molecular techniques (main detection tools for virus detection). In addition to that, the viral recovery and detection by the available methods are generally low. This chapter describes some methods used for shellfish analysis, as well as new approaches of techniques used in viral detection.

Pages: 19

This chapter discusses methods that are intended to be used for research purposes such as the detection and structure elucidation of new toxins or toxin metabolites. Marine biotoxins can be divided into two different classes: hydrophilic and lipophilic marine biotoxins. The chapter discusses the various liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry methods for hydrophilic marine biotoxins and the traditional lipophilic marine biotoxins, such as diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins, azaspiracid shellfish poisoning toxins, pectenotoxins, and yessotoxins. All these toxins show a similar retentive behavior in LC systems, and therefore, these toxins are often analyzed in a single multitoxin analysis. Mass spectrometric analysis methods for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins and the application in shellfish monitoring programs are still in their infancy. For the DSP toxins, several studies have been conducted on the fragmentation of okadaic acid by using various types of ionization such as fast atom bombardment, thermospray, ion spray, and electrospray, where the latter is nowadays used most frequently.

Pages: 16

Biogenic amines (BAs) are particularly important in fish and seafood products as these are extremely perishable. The main BA in these species is histamine, but significant amounts of other BAs such as putrescine, cadaverine, tyramine, spermidine, spermine, and agmatine may also be found depending on different factors that influence their formation (raw material, microorganisms, technological processing, and storage conditions). Many different analytical methods have been developed to determine BA based on their toxicological importance and use to control quality and freshness of seafood and seafood products. The most commonly used techniques to check for BAs in foods are high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis, gas chromatography (GC), thin-layer chromatography, flow injection analysis, biosensors, kits, etc. Due to the nature of seafood and depending on the analysis method chosen, different steps are followed to determine the presence of BAs such as extraction of BAs from the product, cleaning and concentration of the extract, derivatization, separation, and quantification.

Pages: 11

The higher cost and lower supply of fishmeal have created a pressing need for alternative protein sources. Several plant protein sources, including canola, soybeans, and maize gluten, are considered to be suitable alternatives. However, these plants are not regarded as economical due to their imbalanced amino acid profile and the presence of anti-nutritional components. These plants have undergone genetic modification in order to enhance their nutritional profile and serve as an alternative to fishmeal in fish diets. Regarding labeling and traceability, the monitoring charter for genetically modified crops is evaluated on a global scale. The current analytical methods for the detection, identification, and quantification of transgenic DNA in feed ingredients are discussed. PCR multiplexing, digital PCR, biosensors, quantitative real-time PCR, and PCR multiplexing are some of these techniques. Methods that could identify several GM events in a single reaction are particularly considered.

Pages: 226

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 18

Seafood product fraud, involving the addition of “foreign” proteins by substituting all or part of a seafood species for another seafood species or for non-seafood proteins, has attracted much attention because it is widespread throughout the world and may have serious consequences in terms of public health and major economic losses. Therefore, there is a great need for methods to detect illegal substitutions, whether full or partial, or adulterations. This chapter reviews existing and emerging methods for detecting the presence of foreign proteins in seafood products. Current detection methods include protein-based methods such as electrophoresis, mass spectrometry (MS), and immunological techniques, as well as visible and near-infrared (VNIR) spectrometry, microscopic methods, chromatographic techniques, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based methods. These latter have been widely developed over the last few decades, and most of the emerging tools described in this chapter are also DNA-based methods. This chapter will provide the reader, through research results, an idea of the main methods used to detect adulteration of seafood by substitution or addition of an unlabelled component.

Pages: 27

Seafood received special attention since fish substitution, improper storage, or shipping of such perishable products is a common issue that might have a detrimental influence on the product’s quality and safety. The authenticity and traceability of seafood items are critical at all manufacturing stages, from raw ingredients to finished goods. Authentication is also an important factor in correct food labelling, which is necessary to assist customers in choosing acceptable sorts of food items. Various scientific techniques have been developed to ensure seafood authenticity, primarily based on targeted or untargeted examinations. In this chapter, we provide an overview of the current analytical methods used to assess the authenticity of seafood species based on separation gas chromatography (GC), liquid chromatography (LC)-based, spectroscopic tools coupled with chemometric tools, mass spectroscopy, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)-based investigations.

Pages: 27

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) barcoding is a sequencing-based method that utilizes a standardized genetic region to identify species in combination with a reference database. DNA barcoding methodologies have been extensively applied to the identification of species in cooked seafood. While the typical genetic target associated with DNA barcoding is a ~650-bp region of the gene coding for cytochrome (cyt) c oxidase subunit I (COI), additional genetic targets include partial regions of the cyt b and 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) genes. Most categories of cooked seafood can be identified using ~400- to 700-bp regions of these genes; however, canned seafood and other heavily processed products often require shorter regions of DNA, termed “mini-barcodes.” Metabarcoding is an emerging technique that allows for the identification of seafood species mixtures. The objective of this book chapter was to provide an overview of the application of DNA barcoding methodologies for the identification of seafood species in cooked products.

Pages: 12

Frozen fish usually have a much lower market price than fresh fish; therefore, the substitution of frozen–thawed fish for fresh fish is a significant authenticity issue. It is generally accepted that fresh fish (or fillets/portions) and frozen–thawed fish are types of products which should be differentiated. Freezing is one of the main processes currently used for extending the shelf life of fish because it inhibits microbial growth and reduces biochemical and physical spoilage during storage. But freezing can alter the quality of frozen fish in comparison with the unfrozen, fresh product. As exchanging frozen–thawed products for fresh seafood is a fraudulent practice, this requires the introduction of robust analytical procedures for freshness evaluation. The methods that have been used to distinguish fresh seafood from frozen–thawed ones could be categorized into the following categories: organoleptic, histological, enzymatic, physical, physiological, and biochemical.

Pages: 9

The term “antibiotics” was initially used only to refer to fungus or bacterial-produced drug substances and drug products with the ability to kill microorganisms. It is frequently used to refer to synthetic or semi-synthetic compounds that are toxic to bacteria. Anthelmintica (effective against parasites like worms), antimycotica (against molds and fungi), and hormones are examples of substances that cannot be categorized as antibiotics (used to control the sex ratio of males to females of fishes). Yet, it is practical to classify all of these compounds as veterinary medications. This chapter provides an overview of veterinary drugs in aquaculture, their origin, different advanced analytical techniques used for the analysis of veterinary drugs, and future perspectives.

Pages: 21

Spectrochemical or atomic spectroscopic techniques are the most widely used and accepted for the determination of metal ions in seafood. This chapter provides an overview of atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), optical emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasmas as the excitation source, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Thermal decomposition amalgamation AAS will also be discussed due to its extensive use in Hg determination in seafood. Selected applications of spectrochemical methods applied to nutrient, trace, and (potentially) toxic element determination in various seafood are presented based on data published in the past 15 years. It is not meant to be comprehensive but to showcase several studies and trends involving various seafood, spectrochemical techniques, and a variety of elements determined.

Pages: 17

The application of ionization radiation is regarded as one important technique in preserving the hygienic quality of food in the food industry. Food irradiation is a process in which food matrices are exposed to high ionization energy gamma-ray produced from radionuclides. Reliable methods provide scientific tools for upholding regulatory controls, checking compliance against labeling requirements, facilitating international trade, and reinforcing consumer confidence. A number of detection methods, on the basis of chemical, physical, biological, and microbiological changes, were successfully developed. The methods using electron spin resonance spectroscopy (ESR) and thermoluminescence (TL) for detecting primary radiolytic radicals and the analysis of radiolytic 2-alkylcyclobutanones (2-ACBs) and hydrocarbons are specific and conclusive, while others are convenient to be used as fast screening methods. This chapter discusses the technical information on some common and validated detection methods that are mostly reported in the literature.

Pages: 18

Dioxin is a vast term that emcompasses structurally and chemically related polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD), dibenzofurans (PCDF), and dioxin-like biphenyls (DL-PCBs). These compounds persist in the environment and accumulate in a wide array of biological samples, including animal and human adipose tissues across the food web. Humans exposed to these toxic compounds can be environmental, occupational, or accidental pollution. Dietary intake is the main route of dioxin exposure, contributing to 98% of the daily exposure in humans. Foods having a high-fat content, especially meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products, form the main course of dioxin entry into humans and other animals. Seafood and its products have received a fair share of attention due to their widespread consumption around the globe and a high content of dioxins than any other food category. Many aquatic food items such as salmon, catfish, trout, mussels, oysters, crabs, and squid have been documented to contain measurable levels of dioxins. For the growing public concern regarding dioxin exposure and the associated health risks, many wide-ranging efforts and setting up of tight regulations have been done. Dioxins and other alike molecules have been assigned dioxin toxic equivalent factors (TEFs) based on their relative potency compared to the most toxic prototype of this group, TCDD, which is assigned a TEF value of 1. The commonly chromatographic techniques used for the detection of dioxins include high-performance liquid chromatography and gas chromatography coupled with several different detection methods such as mass spectrometry, high-resolution mass spectrometry, and electron capture detection. As per the European Union directive, the use of GC-HRMS has been tagged as the only reliable and appropriate method for the determination of dioxins in food samples. However, the high cost and time-consuming nature of the instrumental analysis have led to the development of rapid and economic methods. Over the recent past, advances in the field of biotechnology have led to the development of bioanalytical detection methods for measuring dioxin-like activity based on the ability of the key biological molecules such as antibodies, receptors, and enzymes to recognize a unique structural feature of the dioxin molecules or based on the ability of cells or organisms to have a specific response to the dioxin and related molecules.

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Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds of natural or anthropogenic origin resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. They are widespread contaminants of the marine ecosystem, and their presence poses serious adverse effects on the marine ecosystem because they affect all organisms from primary to secondary producer levels up until the top levels of the seafood chain. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have been listed as priority pollutants by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) because of their potential carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and toxicity to aquatic organisms and humans. This chapter will focus primarily on the sample preparation and analytical methods for the determination of PAHs and PCBs that represent two classes of pollutants very often detected in fish and shellfish. The intent of this section is to provide an exhaustive summary of analytical methods, carefully for the sampling, preparation, and analysis techniques.

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Innovative packaging techniques have been developed to meet consumers’ safe, high-quality, easy-to-use, ready-to-use product requirements. This review provides information on innovative techniques in the packaging of seafood products. By referring to previous studies in which these novel techniques are used, this review aimed to inform about the current status of novel packaging applications in seafood products, which are known to be easily perishable and sensitive foods, and to provide new perspectives to researchers. Modified atmosphere packaging, active packaging, and intelligent packaging systems have been used successfully in the packaging of seafood products Especially modified atmospheric applications are common. There is a need for more work on intelligent packaging applications in seafood products.

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This chapter deals with analysis of residues that can migrate from food contact materials (FCMs) into seafood and seafood products. The types of materials (plastics, rubbers, silicones, metals, glass, etc.) used in contact with seafoods are reviewed along with the chemicals needed to make these materials. The physical and chemical properties of the different categories of seafoods are described along with the time and temperature conditions under which they may come into contact with the materials. These are all factors that determine what substances can migrate. The substances used to make FCMs span a wide range of functionality, molecular weight, polarity, etc., and a correspondingly wide variety of analytical methods are needed for their detection, identification and quantitative analysis. These methods are reviewed. Food simulants used in standardised migration tests of materials are described. Using simulants and other approaches are placed into a description of an overall strategy of testing materials for their suitability to be used in contact with seafoods. Several worked examples are described on how samples are analysed for migration levels. The chapter closes with special considerations necessary when FCMs are used in the context of active and intelligent functions, surface-active biocides, recycled materials (especially recycled plastics), the use of nanomaterials and high-pressure processing of seafoods.

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The environmental burden of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) has been increasing exponentially due to increased production and consumption of plastic owing to its characteristics like ease of handling, adaptability, cost-effectiveness, pliability, reusability, etc. However, one of its several characteristics, the nondegradability of plastic, leads to its persistent presence in the environment. MNPs not only burden the air, water, and soil but also accumulate in animals and enter the human food chain, owing to their smaller size. The major routes of contamination of food by MNPs include soil, production water, the food processing environment, and the air. Several fruits and vegetables, bottled water, packed foods, seafood, and beverages are reported to contain substantial amounts of MNPs that pose a health risk to humans and animals. Therefore, it is highly recommended to identify and analyze MNPs in the environment as well as food samples, for which several identification and analysis techniques such as microscopy, vibrational spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and many more are recommended. This chapter gives an overview related to several aspects of MNPs, such as its primary and secondary sources, its route of contamination, food reported to be contaminated with MNPs, its possible mechanism, and popular techniques employed for its identification and analysis.