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Milk is defined as the secretion of the mammary glands of mammals and the primary function of milk is to provide nutrition to the young. Milk of some animals, especially cows, buffaloes, goats and sheep, is also used for human consumption. This can be either in the form of milk or in the form of a range of dairy products prepared from milk. In this book, the word milk will be used for the ‘normal’ milk from healthy cows, unless specifically stated otherwise. Occasionally, a comparison will also be made with human milk or milk from other species.

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In this chapter, the various classes of components of milk and their properties are discussed. The emphasis is on chemical properties and the reactivity of the components, although some other aspects are included as well, such as crystallization. Synthesis of the components and nutritional aspects are briefly mentioned, but are largely outside the scope of this book. The chapter ends with a section on the natural variation in milk composition. Physical aspects of the important structure elements of milk, e.g., the casein micelle and milk fat globules, are not covered in this chapter, but are described in detail in Chapter 3.

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In Chapter 1, Figure 1.1 and Table 1.2 show that colloidal aspects of milk are of great importance. Milk is a dispersion and contains many particles of colloidal dimensions (say, between 10 nm and 100 μm in diameter), particularly fat globules and casein micelles; together they make up 12 to 15% of the milk by volume. Moreover, small gas (especially air) bubbles may also be present in milk.

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The previous chapters have described the different components of milk (Chapter 2) and the structural elements, such as the casein micelles and the milk fat globules, that occur in milk (Chapter 3). Through its components and their interactions, milk attains several physicochemical properties, which can affect the processing of milk and the quality of milk and dairy products. The main physicochemical properties of milk are discussed in this chapter.

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Milk must be of good hygienic quality. This is essential in terms of public health, the quality of the products made from milk, and the suitability of milk for processing. Components that are foreign to milk but enter the milk via the udder or during or after milking, as well as any changes occurring in the milk, are often detrimental to its quality. These matters are the subject of milk hygiene. Microbial, chemical, and physical hygiene may be distinguished. Thus, micro-organisms may produce a health hazard (food infection or food poisoning) or spoil the milk, e.g., because they turn it sour during storage. Light-induced off-flavors, fat oxidation, and fat hydrolysis result from chemical or enzymic transformations. Furthermore, compounds that are potentially harmful to the consumer, such as antibiotics, disinfectants, pesticides, and heavy metals, may enter the milk. In this chapter, microbiological aspects of milk hygiene are discussed.

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While some milk is still consumed as raw milk without any further processing, most milk that is produced is subjected to one or more processing steps. These can range from mild to very intensive and for different products range a single processing step to many processing steps. The key processing unit operations applied to milk and dairy products are described in subsequent chapters in detail. These include heating (Chapter 7), centrifugation (Chapter 8), homogenization (Chapter 9), evaporation (Chapter 10), drying (Chapter 11), membrane filtration (Chapter 12), and fermentation (Chapter 13). In addition. These are processes that are each applied to a number of dairy products. For instance, virtually all dairy products are subjected to one or more heat treatments, whereas drying is applied to many dairy ingredients and evaporation is often applied in the manufacture of these dried dairy products, but also in the production of evaporated milk and sweetened condensed milk. In addition, there are also some processing technologies applied that are used for specific products, e.g., churning technologies for butter manufacture, freezing technologies for ice cream manufacture, or curd makers and curd drainage equipment in for cheese manufacture. These more specific technologies are covered in chapters on the specific products.

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The manufacture of virtually all milk and dairy products involves heat treatment. Such treatment is mainly aimed at inactivating micro-organisms and inactivating enzymes, or at achieving some other, mainly chemical, changes. The result of heat treatment greatly depends on the intensity of the treatment, i.e., the combination of the temperature and duration of heating. When considering heat-induced changes in milk, it is useful to distinguish between irreversible and reversible changes. Heat treatment may also cause undesirable changes, although desirability may depend on the kind of product made and on its intended use. Examples are browning, development of a cooked flavor, loss of nutritional quality, inactivation of bacterial inhibitors, and impairment of rennetability. This means that heat treatment should be carefully optimized for the intended used of the milk.

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In some dairy processes, centrifugation is applied. The most common reason for applying centrifugation of milk is to separate fat globules, in the form of cream, from skim milk. Furthermore, centrifugation may also be applied to separate solid particles from milk and other dairy liquids. In this section, centrifugation from a dairy perspective is described.

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Homogenization is a process that is applied widely in the dairy industry. It is, for instance, applied in the production of (almost) all milk products for consumption, including recombined products. Furthermore, it is applied in the production of whole milk powder and ice cream and as a pre-treatment of milk in the manufacture of yoghurt and other fermented dairy products. Mild homogenization may also be applied in some cream products. In contrast, however, homogenization is rarely applied in the manufacture of cheese. The main effect of homogenization is it that causes the disruption of milk fat globules into many smaller ones. This results in the enlargement of the fat globule interface, typically by a factor of factor of 5 to 10. In this process, the composition of the milk fat globule interface also changes considerably, with the new interface after homogenization being covered primarily with milk protein, and predominantly with casein. The changes in the size, surface area, and the composition of the surface layer have a notable impact on the properties of milk and dairy products and are often the principal objectives of the application of homogenization.

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Milk, skim milk, whey, and other milk products can be concentrated, i.e., part of the water, or (virtually) all of the water can be removed. The main purpose of concentration is to diminish the volume product and to enhance the storage stability. Water can be removed from milk by evaporation, which in addition to water also removes volatile substances, especially dissolved gases. Evaporation is usually done under reduced pressure, and hence also decreased temperature, to prevent damage caused by heating. Water can also be removed by membrane filtration, i.e., via reverse osmosis, where pressure is applied to a solution to pass its water through a suitable membrane (see Section 12.3). Removal of water to such a low level that the product becomes solid-like is called drying. Drying is achieved by vaporization of water, usually from concentrated milk (Chapter 11).

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Drying processes in the dairy industry are applied to remove virtually all water from liquid dairy products. The main advantages of doing this are the extension of the shelf life of the products and a reduction in the amount of material that needs to be transported. Drying of dairy products facilitates export of products from areas of the world where dairy production exceeds local demand to areas of the world where demand exceeds local production. Drying is applied to milk and whey, to produce milk powders (Chapter 21) and whey powders (Chapter 22), but also to many dairy ingredients, such as lactose (Chapter 28), whey protein concentrates and isolates (Chapter 23), milk protein concentrates and isolates (Chapter 24), micellar casein concentrates and isolates (Chapter 25), caseinates (Chapter 26), and milk protein hydrolysates (Chapter 27). Likewise, drying is applied extensively in the production of nutritional formulations for infants and young children. In most cases, drying of dairy products and ingredients is carried out by spray-drying; this technology is therefore the main focus of this chapter. For some products, however, other drying technologies, such as roller drying, can provide specific functional benefits. This is, e.g., the case for whole milk powder applied in chocolate manufacture. Roller drying and other technologies are also briefly covered in this chapter. The focus of this chapter will be specifically on the drying technologies. Specifics of dried products are covered in other product-specific chapters.

Pages: 14

Membrane filtration processes are widely applied in the dairy industry, particularly in the manufacturing of dairy ingredients, such as in whey protein concentrate and isolate (Chapter 23) and milk protein concentrate and isolate (Chapter 24). In the manufacture of these ingredients, as well as in other dairy products and ingredients, membrane processes are applied to separate a liquid into two liquids of different composition. The composition of the streams postseparation can vary widely, depending on the initial streams used and the type of membranes used. This can be used to remove only water or to remove salts, lactose proteins, or bacteria, or for the fractionation of protein.

Pages: 36

If raw milk is stored, it spoils as a result of microbial action. At moderate temperatures, lactic acid bacteria are generally predominant, and the milk acidifies. Next to spoilage, however, fermentation with lactic acid bacteria is also exploited in the production of dairy products because nearly all types of fermented milk products are based on such acidification activity of lactic acid bacteria, which are added in the form of starter cultures. A starter is a culture of specific microorganisms added to milk or another liquid to induce the desired fermentation. In this chapter, some of the basic microbial aspects are discussed, as well as some principles of processing, especially starter culture manufacture and handling. Manufacture of fermented milks, with some emphasis on yogurt, is treated in Chapter 20. Lactic acid fermentation is also of importance for cultured butter (Chapter 17) and is essential in the manufacture and ripening of cheese (Chapter 36).

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Liquid milk can be delivered to the consumer after various heat treatments, i.e., none (raw milk), pasteurized, or sterilized. The properties of liquid milk that require the most attention are safety to the consumer, shelf life, and flavor. Safety is, of course, essential and consumption of raw milk cannot be considered safe. Consequently, the delivery of raw milk is prohibited or severely curtailed in many countries. Likewise, delivering milk that is not packaged may involve health hazards.

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Concentrated milk products are a class of products that can be described as liquid milk products with a considerably reduced water content. The two common product types in this class are evaporated milk and sweetened condensed milk. For these products, water is typically removed by evaporation, although recombined products, from dry ingredients, are also produced. The products are typically intended to have a long shelf life (months or years) and ambient temperature, thus requiring good preservation. In the case of evaporated milk, preservation is achieved by sterilization. In the case of sweetened condensed milk, preservation is achieved by reducing water activity to levels where growth of micro-organisms cannot occur anymore, via the addition of high levels of sucrose. Initially, evaporated milk and sweetened condensed milk were developed for export to regions where milk was hardly or not available. The milks were packaged in small cans. The contents were often diluted with water before consumption to resemble plain milk.

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Cream products are generally characterized as liquid milk products that are enriched in fat. The fat content of cream products can vary widely, from 10 to >50% (w/w) and along with this, the uses and applications of cream can vary widely. Traditionally, cream was considered a luxury product, but is now used readily in many forms and for different purposes. Traditionally, it has been associated primarily as a topping for, e.g., desserts, fruit and cakes, often in whipped form. However, cream is also widely used as an ingredient in many sweet and savory products, both at home and industrially; these include e.g., ice cream, soups and sauces, bakery and confectionary products. Cream products are also often used in coffee and tea. Furthermore, cream is also the base material for preparing products such as butter (see Chapter 17) and anhydrous milk fat (Chapter 18) and an ingredient in ice cream (Chapter 19). In this chapter, focus will be on pasteurized and sterilized cream products.

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Butter is a dairy product in the form of a water-in-oil emulsion where the fat fraction consists of milk fat. Industrialization of its production and cooled storage results in a high-quality product with a long shelf life. Butter is generally made from cream by means of churning and working to achieve the required product. The fat in the product is partly crystallized and provides the product with its consistency. In the past, butter making was a batch process, where fermented cream was churned in a batch process. Modern butter production is generally based on continuous butter-making using non-fermented cream.

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Anhydrous milk fat (AMF), milk fat, anhydrous butteroil and butteroil are all fatty products derived exclusively from milk and/or products obtained from milk by means of processes which result in almost total removal of water and non‑fat solids. These products consisting of more or less pure milk fat. By definition, these products must be derived from fresh cream or butter. The (virtual) absence of water of water makes the products microbially stable and thus have of long shelf life. The high purity of the materials makes them versatile ingredients in many applications, as discussed further in the next section. In addition to using these milk fat products as a whole, they can also be fractionated into different classes based on their melting point into. e.g., high-melting, medium-melting, and low-melting fractions, each of which has specific applications, as discussed in subsequent sections.

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There are numerous types of edible ice, essentially mixtures of water, sugar, flavor substances, and other components, which are partly frozen and beaten to form a rigid foam. In most types, milk or cream is an important ingredient. Some examples of the composition are given in Table 19.1. Sometimes, a part of the milk solids-not-fat is often substituted by whey constituents to lower ingredient costs. In some countries, the milk fat is often substituted by vegetable fat. However, only dairy ice cream is the product discussed here.

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Having a very old product history, fermented milks originated on the basis of the generally applicable rule that raw milk will spoil after storage because of microbial action. At moderate temperatures, lactic acid bacteria commonly are predominant, and the milk spontaneously acidifies. When the acidified milk has been used, and fresh milk is put in the same vessel without rigorous cleaning of that vessel, the fresh milk is inoculated with the remaining bacterial flora. The milk now acidifies more quickly, generally due to a smaller number of bacterial species and strains. If this process is repeated under fairly constant conditions (especially in regard to temperature), natural selection leads to an almost pure lactic acid fermentation, although some other bacteria may remain present.

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Milk powders are products that can be obtained by the (near-)complete removal of water from milk. The main types of milk powder produced are whole milk powder and skim milk powder, although other products such as partly skimmed milk powder and buttermilk powder are also produced. The main aim for their production is to produce a product with an extended shelf life that can be transported and reconstituted. Milk powder may be reconstituted in water by consumers to provide a liquid milk for direct consumption. However, the more wide-spread use of milk powder is as an ingredient in a wide variety of products. Within the dairy sector, milk powder is used, e.g., in the manufacture of recombined milk products, yoghurt, ice cream, and sometimes also for cheese milk standardization. Furthermore, milk powder finds widespread use in the manufacture of infant formula products, bakery products, confectionary, soups and sauces, and many other products.

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Whey powders constitute a class of products obtained by drying whey. The whey used may be sweet whey or acid whey. Sweet whey is typically obtained from enzymatic coagulation of milk, such as in cheese making (Chapter 32) or rennet casein manufacture (Chapter 26). In contrast, acid whey is obtained from acid coagulation of milk, such as in acid casein and caseinate manufacture (Chapter 26). The vast majority of whey powder products available are derived from sweet whey. Sweet whey may be used as such for the preparation of whey powder. However, a notable part of the sweet whey is also (partially) demineralized before drying, using ion exchange, nanofiltration, electrodialysis, or combinations thereof. The product obtained after drying this (partially) demineralized whey is demineralized whey powder. In many cases, the lactose in the various whey powders is pre-crystallized to prepare non-hygroscopic powders with improved storage stability. These products may be referred to as pre-crystallized whey powders.

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Whey protein concentrate (WPC) and whey protein isolate (WPI) are part of the class of milk protein ingredients. WPC and WPI are prepared from liquid whey by concentration of the protein fraction of milk by ultrafiltration and diafiltration. During these processes, protein on dry matter content is increased, whereas lactose on dry matter content decreases. Concentrates are subsequently evaporated and spray-dried to yield powdered ingredients. Most WPC and WPI are produced from rennet whey, obtained from cheese-making (see Chapters 31 and 32), but products produced from acid whey, obtained from the manufacture of acid casein and caseinates (see Chapter 26), are also available. Furthermore, native whey, obtained from micro-filtration of milk in the manufacture of micellar casein concentrates and isolates (see Chapter 25) can also be used. The selection of whey source will have an impact on protein composition and salt composition of the products.

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Milk protein concentrate (MPC) and milk protein isolate (MPI) are part of the class of milk protein ingredients. MPC and MCI are prepared from skimmed milk by concentration of the protein fraction of milk by ultrafiltration and diafiltration. During these processes, protein on dry-matter content is increased, whereas lactose on dry-matter content decreases. Concentrates are subsequently evaporated and spray-dried to yield powdered ingredients.

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Micellar casein concentrate (MCC) and micellar casein isolate (MCI) are casein-enriched milk protein ingredients. MCC and MCI are prepared from skimmed milk by concentration of the casein fraction by micro-filtration and diafiltration. During this process, protein on dry matter and casein:whey protein ratio are increased, whereas lactose on dry matter decreases. The retentates are subsequently spray-dried to yield powdered ingredients. The products are also known under other names such as micro-filtered milk protein and phosphocasein, but here the terms MCC and MCI will be used.

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Caseins and caseinates are a class of milk protein ingredients that have been produced industrially for nearly a century. Initially, they were primarily used as high-quality ingredients in, e.g., adhesives, plastics, and synthetic fibers, but over time their use in food products has become the predominant application of caseins and caseinates. Rennet casein and acid casein are the two different types of caseins available. Caseinates are classified based on the cation of the alkali used in their production, i.e., sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesium caseinate. All caseins and caseinates contain >90% protein in dry matter, with the remainder primarily being minerals; lactose and fat are only found in very small amounts in these products.

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Milk protein hydrolysates are a class of milk protein ingredients that have been gaining more and more interest in the past few decades. For these ingredients, hydrolysis of proteins is either carried out enzymatically or chemically, at acidic or alkaline conditions. The composition of the hydrolysates resulting from chemical hydrolysis is difficult to control. Due to the higher specificity of enzymes, enzymatic hydrolysis is preferred in the manufacture of milk protein hydrolysates. Hydrolysates may be prepared from whey proteins, caseins or mixtures thereof, yielding whey protein hydrolysate, casein hydrolysate, or milk protein hydrolysate, respectively. Hydrolysates may further be characterized by the percentage of peptide bonds that have been hydrolyzed. This is typically expressed in the so-called degree of hydrolysis (%DH). Distinction is made between mildly (%DH < 5), partially (5 < DH < 15), and extensively (DH > 15) hydrolyzed proteins.

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Next to it being a main constituent in many other dairy ingredients, such as milk powder and whey powder, lactose is also produced as an ingredient itself. Most lactose is isolated from whey permeates, which is a by-product from whey protein concentrate production (see Chapter 23). Lactose is used in a wide variety of products. Lactose ingredients can vary in purity and the form in which the lactose is present. Most lactose powders contain lactose in the form of crystalline α-lactose monohydrate, but powders containing crystalline anhydrous α-lactose or β-lactose and amorphous lactose are also produced for specific purposes

Pages: 4

In addition to lactose being a dairy ingredient itself and being a major constituent of dairy ingredients (e.g., milk powder or whey powder), lactose is also converted into a number of high value derivatives which are applied widely in the food, non-food, and pharmaceutical industries. Examples include galacto-oligosaccharides, lactobionic acid, lactulose, lacto-sucrose, and lactitol. This chapter covers the production and application of such ingredients.

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While human milk provides the ideal nutrition to new-born babies, there are cases when human cannot be supplied. In these cases, infant formula products provide suitable alternatives. As infant formula (IF) products are the only source of nutrition for formula-fed infants, these products need to provide the same balance of nutrients for the neonate as human milk does. IF products are intended for infants of 0-6 months of age. Because human milk differs notably from bovine milk in composition (see Section 30.2), considerable compositional adaptations are required in IF products, most notably in, e.g., protein content, casein:whey protein ratio (~80:20 in bovine milk but 40:60 in human milk), fatty acid composition, and levels of different salts, vitamins, and other micronutrients.

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Cheese is one of the major categories of dairy products, with approximately 25% of the milk available in the world converted into cheese. Codex Standard 283-1978 describes cheese as “the ripened or unripened soft, semi-hard, hard, or extra-hard product, which may be coated, and in which the whey protein/casein ratio does not exceed that of milk”. In this description, cheese may be obtained by “(a) coagulating wholly or partly the protein of milk, skimmed milk, partly skimmed milk, cream, whey cream or buttermilk, or any combination of these materials, through the action of rennet or other suitable coagulating agents, and by partially draining the whey resulting from the coagulation, while respecting the principle that cheese-making results in a concentration of milk protein (in particular, the casein portion), and that consequently, the protein content of the cheese will be distinctly higher than the protein level of the blend of the above milk materials from which the cheese was made; and/or (b) processing techniques involving coagulation of the protein of milk and/or products obtained from milk which give an end-product with similar physical, chemical and organoleptic characteristics as the product defined under (a)”.

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As outlined in Chapter 31, there are many different cheese varieties produced worldwide, which all have some differentiating parameters in the production process. These can be related to the specific milk used, milk pre-treatments, specific cultures, coagulants, or other additives to the cheese or variations in composition, processing, or ripening. However, despite these specific differences, there are also broad similarities in the preparation of these cheese varieties. In this chapter, the basics principles and processing steps in cheese manufacture are discussed. These include: Pre-treatment of milk for cheese manufacture Additives to cheese milk Rennet-induced coagulation Curd formation Syneresis and whey removal Moulding and pressing Salting Ripening

Pages: 9

As outlined in Section 32.5, the rennet-induced coagulation of milk is a critical process in the manufacture of most cheese varieties. It was briefly dealt with in some previous sections but due to its importance will be covered more extensively in this chapter. The basis of rennet-induced coagulation is based on a reduction in steric stabilization of casein micelles, as a result of which they become susceptible to aggregation. In this process, three stages are distinguished: An enzymatic phase, in which renneting enzymes hydrolyze κ-casein on the surface of the micelles to form para-casein micelles and release the caseinomacropeptide (CMP) in the serum phase. An aggregation phase, in which the para-casein micelles aggregate. A gelation phase, in which further aggregation leads to the formation a gel encompassing the whole milk.

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As outlined in Chapter 32, syneresis of the curd is essential for moisture removal from the curd. In this section, the fundamentals of this process will be covered in further detail. Many gels tend to shrink spontaneously, thereby expelling liquid. A rennet milk gel can do so, expelling whey, which will be further discussed in this section. Acid milk gels are also subject to syneresis by the same mechanism as rennet gels, though much slower.

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As outlined in Chapters 31 and 32, salting is an essential step in the manufacture of cheese and most common cheese varieties are salted, although levels of salt in the cheese may vary widely. Many cheese varieties contain about 2% salt, or 4 to 5% salt-in-water, but varieties with (much) higher and lower salt content are also readily available. Salt is added to cheese for various reasons. The primary functions of salt include preservation and its effect on cheese flavor, consistency, and ripening. Moreover, growth of lactic acid bacteria, but also of potentially undesirable micro-organisms, is inhibited at high salt content. In addition to the aforementioned factors, salting also affects the cheese yield: salt is taken up in the cheese, but at the same time a greater amount of water moves out, resulting in a (substantial) loss of weight. The loss of weight during brining often can amount to about 3%.

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Ripening of cheese includes all the chemical changes occurring in the cheese, some of which begin before the curd making is finished. The structure and composition of the cheese change, and hence its organoleptic properties. Biochemical and micro-biological, as well as purely chemical and physical aspects are involved. Development of cheese properties, including consistency and flavor, is especially attributable to the conversion of lactose, protein, fat, and, in some cheeses, citrate. In this chapter, ripening of cheese is covered.

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As outlined in Chapter 36, micro-organisms are important in the ripening of many cheese varieties. However, several micro-organisms present in a cheese or on its surface can also cause flavor and or texture defects. Most micro-organisms from the milk are almost completely entrapped in the curd, and this raises their number per gram of cheese by a factor of 7 to 11, as compared to the count in milk. Nevertheless, growth of the micro-organisms is nearly always needed to produce defects. The growth of micro-organisms in relation to cheese and cheese manufacture is determined by the following factors: The microbial composition of the milk, with particularly important aspects such: Hygienic measures during milking and milk handling; this is especially important for cheese made of raw milk. Pasteurization: typical pasteurization of the milk inactivates most spoilage organisms but does not inactivate Clostridium spores (Table 7.2). Bactofugation; this can substantially reduce the microbial count, and also the number of Clostridium spores. Recontamination of the milk after pasteurization or bactofugation. Measures to prevent contamination during manufacture and curing of the cheese: Regular cleaning of the equipment, treatment of the brine (e.g., by microfiltration), and overall hygiene are important. Measures to limit the growth of micro-organisms during manufacture and maturation of the cheese: This may involve addition of inhibitors to the milk or the curd, enhancing the rate and the completeness of the fermentation of lactose, and prevention of growth of organisms on the rind. Physicochemical properties of the cheese: In particular, lactic acid content and pH, content of NaCl, presence of sugars, temperature, ripening time, and relative humidity of the air, determine whether or not micro-organisms can grow in or on the cheese, as well as what undesirable metabolites they can produce.

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Cheese can vary greatly in composition and is manufactured and cured in widely varying manners. This results in a incredible variety of types. In this chapter the variability as such is discussed: what can be varied and what are the consequences? In subsequent chapters, several cheese types are discussed in more detail. This illustrates the interaction between the various process steps and the need to integrate the steps into an efficient process, leading to a good-quality cheese of the type desired. Of course, it was necessary to select some types of cheese from among the numerous types produced. The main consideration in selecting a particular type was that it would allow the most important aspects of cheese-making and cheese properties to be treated.

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Fresh or unripened cheeses are curd-like products that can be consumed immediately after manufacture. The products undergo little, if any, ripening, except that lactose is fermented. Generally, fresh cheese has a limited shelf life, say, 2 weeks under refrigeration.

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Gouda cheese is a ripened semi-hard brine-salted cheese variety that is produced from bovine milk. This cheese variety originates from the town of Gouda in the Netherlands, but is now produced in many different locations in the world. The term Gouda cheese has no protected designation of origin (PDO) in the European Union. However, Gouda cheese produced from in the Netherlands from Dutch milk received the EC recognition as a regional specialty as Gouda Holland with protected geographical indication (PGI). A small proportion of the Gouda cheese has PDO under the name Noordhollandse Gouda for Gouda cheese produced in, and with milk derived from, the Dutch Province of Noord-Holland. This, however, represents only a small proportion of Gouda produced world-wide, with most being produced in modern large-scale factories all over the world. Next to the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, and Poland also produce considerable quantities of Gouda cheese, but it is also produced in, e.g., the United States, Brazil, Mexico, and Australia.

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Cheddar cheese is a ripened hard cheese variety that is produced from bovine milk. This cheese variety originates from the town of Cheddar, in the English country of Somerset, but is now produced all over the world. The term Cheddar Cheese has no protected designation of origin (PDO) in the European Union, but a PDO for so-called West Country Farmhouse Cheddar was created for Cheddar cheese produced using traditional methods from milk originating from the counties of Somerset, Devon, Dorset, and Cornwall in the UK. West Country Farmhouse Cheddar, however, represents only a small proportion of Cheddar produced worldwide, with most of the Cheddar being produced in modern factories all over the world. Main producers of Cheddar cheese are the UK and Ireland, USA, Australia, and New Zealand.

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Emmental cheese is a ripened hard brine-salted cheese variety that is produced from bovine milk. Key characteristics of Emmental cheese are the eye formation and the mild, sweet, nut-like flavor, for both of which propionic acid fermentation plays a key role. Emmental is categorized as a Swiss-type cheese, a category which further consists of hard and semi-hard cheeses with propionic acid fermentation. Other cheeses in this category include Jarlsberg (Norway), Svenbo (Denmark), Greven (Sweden), Gruyere (France, though not Gruyere PDO as produced in Switzerland), and Maasdammer and Leerdammer (both the Netherlands).

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Mozzarella cheese is a so-called pasta filata cheese. The term pasta filata, which in Italian literally means ‘spun pasta’ refers to the unique plasticization and stretching process that is applied in the production of pasta filata cheeses. Other pasta filata cheeses include Kashakaval, Provelone and Ragususano. Mozzarella cheese is either used fresh or with limited ripening, and two main types of Mozzarella are distinguished. The so-called fresh, high-moisture (>55% moisture), Mozzarella made from whole cow or buffalo milk, or so-called low-moisture Mozzarella cheese, which typically contains <45% moisture. Global production of low-moisture Mozzarella cheese far exceeds that of high-moisture Mozzarella cheese and other pasta filata cheeses and will be the key topic of this chapter. The products are used widely as a topping on pizza, pastas and in other hot applications all over the world. Low-moisture Mozzarella cheese is produced all over the world, mainly at industrial scale. Particular areas of high production are North-Western Europe, North America and Australia and New Zealand.

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There are many cheese varieties with a specific flora. These types of cheese are characterized by their microbial ripening being controlled not only by a normal flora of lactic acid bacteria (sometimes also propionic acid bacteria), but also by either: A surface flora in which Penicillium camemberti is the dominant organism. This mostly concerns cheeses with a soft consistency, e.g., Camembert and Brie. A surface flora dominated by pigment-producing strains of coryneform bacteria such as Arthrobacter spp. and Brevibacterium linens. It concerns soft cheeses such as Pont l’Évêque, Munster, and Herve as well as some types of hard cheese, e.g., Gruyère, and semi-hard cheese, e.g., Tilsiter and Port du Salut. An internal flora consisting of Penicillium roqueforti. Among the cheeses are the semi-hard Roquefort, many types designated ‘Bleu’, and also Stilton, which is a harder type of cheese.