Pages: 12

The nutritional value, safety, and sensory properties of foods depend on the composition of the raw materials and on the changes due to storage, handling, and processing. Saccharides, proteins, and lipids as well as minor components are essential nourishments, but some of them may be nutritionally undesirable. The properties and roles of different food constituents mentioned in this chapter have been thoroughly treated in the following parts of the book.

Pages: 26

In ancient times, humans only ate foods of plant origin, but when they started to eat meat, it contributed to a significant evolution of the brain and human body. Since primitive humans realized that a meat diet is far more concentrated than plants, they began to spend more time on other skills, for instance, making new tools or pictorial art. However, the first food of humans, as for all mammals, has always been milk, which is the perfect food designed by nature to feed the neonate. Similarly, a perfect product created by nature is the egg, which contains all the nutrients necessary for the embryo to grow. Eggs, like honey, being produced by animals, have been eaten by humans for centuries. The food consumed by humans nowadays is very diverse, providing a broad range of various nutritive compounds. Food can be defined as the edible part of plant or animal tissues in a natural (raw material) or processed state, mainly consisting of water, proteins, saccharides, lipids, mineral component, and vitamins. According to the legal terminology, food is “any processed, partially processed or unprocessed substance or product intended for human consumption” (Regulation EC No. 178/2002). The food described in this chapter consists of various raw materials and products of animal origin (meat, fish and fishery products, eggs, milk, dairy products) and of plant origin (cereals, grains, fruits, vegetables, pulses, oilseeds, fungi, and flowers).

Pages: 34

In the first section of this chapter, a food chemist explains the unique physical, chemical, and transport properties of water and its importance as a component of all biological material. The following section, written by an agricultural engineer, describes the role of water in foods, how it is bound within solid foods, and the importance of sorption isotherms and water activity. The measurement of water activity and its effect on microbial activity, food spoilage, and shelf life is described. Definitions, legislation, standards, labeling, treatment, and hygiene of natural mineral water and other bottled water are reported. The chapter concludes with an outline of water pollution, wastewater treatment, and wastewater disposal methods.

Pages: 32

This chapter covers the role of mineral components in food products and human health. It presents the origin and contents of mineral components in food raw materials and products as well as factors affecting their appearance and speciation. It also contains information concerning changes in the contents and distribution of mineral components in foods due to storage and processing. Even small amounts of elements can influence positively or negatively the stability and sensory properties, as well as the biological value, of foods. Moreover, the interactions of mineral elements with other food components are described. The last section is devoted to mineral food additives, which play important role in food processing and the final product’s quality.

Pages: 50

This chapter discusses the structure–functionality relationships of food-grade saccharides. The saccharide sources, their molecular structures and conformations, physical and chemical properties, as well as methods of extraction are presented. Though the chemical structures of polysaccharides are similar to each other, their functional characteristics are quite different. The saccharide structure, temperature, pH, water content, ratio, and type of other food components present play a dominant role in developing the color and flavor of foods. The texturing properties are determined by the molecular structure of polysaccharides. Any structural features that hinder intermolecular association result in higher solubility, while structural features and conformations of polysaccharides that promote intermolecular association result in poor solubility but favor gelling properties. Saccharides are the main sources of easily digestible energy, although their nutritional and physiological functions are distinct.

Pages: 48

This chapter describes the effect of proteins on the sensory attributes and the biological value and safety of foods. The role of proteins depends on their amino acid composition and structure, on changes due to storage and processing, as well as on interactions with other food components. The effect on the sensory quality of foods is brought about by hydrophobicity, solubility, water holding capacity, gelling, film formation, and emulsifying and foaming ability. The nutritional value, as well as the safety, of proteinaceous food components depend on the natural properties of the raw materials and on the processing factors, especially temperature, access to oxygen, and chemical or enzymatic reactions. The proteins of animal and plant sources differ in their suitability for various food applications.

Pages: 22

This chapter discusses the issues related to the presence in food of compounds that contain nitrogen in their structures but are not proteins, namely: free amino acids (FAA), oligopeptides, amines, nucleic acids, and nucleotides. They are important from a nutritional and toxicological point of view, and some affect the sensory and biological properties and safety of food. The quality and quantity of non-protein nitrogen (NPN) in food depends on many factors, such as the growing and breeding conditions, as well as processing and storage methods for both raw materials and final products. Some of the NPN compounds such as nitrosamines or heterocyclic aromatic amines have been omitted here because their toxicological properties have been described in Chapter 18.

Pages: 40

This chapter deals with lipids present in food as well as their chemical, biological, and functional properties. The chapter begins with a presentation of the main groups of lipids including their chemical structure and physical properties. The physical properties of lipids affecting food processing are covered. Then, the role of lipids in human nutrition is presented. This is followed by a description of the undesirable changes in food lipids during storage and processing. The next part provides a broad outline of the effect of fats on food quality. The role of lipids in the formation of rheological properties of food and their contribution to food discoloration are described and also presented as precursors of aroma compounds. The chapter further describes the chemical and biochemical reactions of lipids including hydrolysis, esterification, hydrogenation, and oxidation. Frying fats including frying media, deep frying, and nutritional and health aspects are also discussed. The chapter concludes by presenting the formation and stability of lipid emulsions. The chapter provides useful knowledge about fats and lipids for food technologists and consumers.

Pages: 20

In this chapter, engineering aspects concerning real body mechanics and the impact of respective food ingredients on said properties are presented together. Food is a complex matrix and each macro and micro ingredient plays its role in the formation of rheologic properties, and minor changes in the basic ingredient structure may affect the change of these properties significantly. Basic analytic techniques are presented for the assessment of rheologic parameters. Furthermore, this chapter includes the evaluation of the impact of selected food ingredients, such as proteins, saccharides, and lipids, on the creation of measurable, rheologic parameters of food products and their modification possibilities.

Pages: 18

Color is one of the important factors that directly affect consumers’ interests, food selection, and nutrition habits. The natural color of plant-based foods varies due to the presence of yellow, orange, and red carotenoids, green chlorophylls, red-violet and yellow betalains, and red, blue, or purple anthocyanins. These phytocompounds are also registered as food additives with a coloring function. In the human diet, leafy vegetables are the main source of chlorophyll, beetroot and cacti fruits provide betalains, and various fruits and vegetables provide anthocyanins and carotenoids. The content of pigments in plant raw materials is influenced by many factors, including climatic and agrotechnical conditions, variety, and harvest time. The stability of natural pigments depends on their chemical structure, food matrix composition, and technological process parameters (e.g., pH, temperature). Changes in pigments during food storage depend on temperature, storage time and light, and the type of packaging. In general, natural pigments are unstable and may undergo changes leading to lightening, discoloration of the product, or an unfavorable color change which is controversial to consumers.

Pages: 36

From the perspective of maximizing a food’s wholesomeness and shelf-life or of evaluating the potential health benefits afforded by consuming a foodstuff, one must possess knowledge about the types, quantities, and mechanistic action of the prooxidants and antioxidants in the product. Foods contain natural antioxidants and prooxidant constituents at various concentrations. Yet when food undergoes processing, prooxidant and antioxidant constituents can be stripped from, introduced to, or generated within the food system. This chapter describes some of the most common sources of natural antioxidants found in foods and reports on the mechanisms involved in lipid and protein oxidation, as well as the impact of these reactions on the sensory and biological properties of foods. The beneficial role of adding natural antioxidants and the types available are discussed in terms of not only how to combat the deleterious effects of oxidation, but also how concentration can play a part in turning an antioxidant into a prooxidant within a food system. The most common types of prooxidants are described and when known, their mechanistic action in a food system is presented. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of the in vitro assays available to assess the antioxidant potential of a foodstuff.

Pages: 24

Food allergy affects about 7–8% of children and 1–2% of adults. According to the WHO, in the last decade, approximately 240–550 million people worldwide have suffered from a food allergy. Allergic symptoms are reported by about 40% of the population. In Europe, food allergies affect 11–26 million people. The most common sources of food allergens, responsible for 90% of all IgE-mediated food allergies, are milk, egg, soy, fish, peanuts, tree nuts, crustaceans, wheat, mollusks, lupin, celery, sesame, mustard, and sulfates (IV). Food allergy is a potentially life-threatening immunological response that occurs reproducibly upon ingestion of the allergen (Boyce et al., 2010). In the food industry, during technological treatment, raw materials are subjected to numerous physical, chemical, and micrological processes, which cause changes in the food matrix and give new, desirable features to the products. At the same time, the allergenic potential of proteins changes as a result of their partial degradation, aggregation, crosslinking, as well as chemical modifications such as lactosylation, oxidation, or Maillard reactions. This chapter presents the influence of technological processes on the immunoreactive properties of cow’s milk proteins, as an example of industrial influences on raw materials.

Pages: 38

This chapter reviews sources of food flavors from spices, herbs, vegetables, fruits, dairy, meats, and seafood, as well as those produced by microbes, enzymes, and thermal reactions. Aroma compounds of different molecular structures are reviewed for their roles in authentic food characteristics. Important reactions generating aromas such as the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation are discussed for their contributions to food acceptance. Factors affecting flavor quality and carcinogenic compounds generated from thermal processes are covered for ensuring optimum acceptance and safety. The flavor industry serving as an accelerator of processed food diversity is a blend of art, science, and technology. The uniqueness, various ingredients used, and the labeling, manufacturing, and delivery systems are described for a better understanding of their operations. With the global trend shifting upward on plant-based foods and drinks, the flavor industry plays an even more important role in providing natural and green ingredients utilizing modern technologies such as recombinant DNA to optimize taste and cost. With the diverse and significant role of flavors in foods, legislation must be complete and complied with.

Pages: 18

This chapter covers the technological aspects of the use of additives in food production. The first section covers the basic information with emphasis on the classification and technological roles of additives. Subsequently, the characteristics and properties of the most important additives used in food technology are presented in separate sections devoted to substances that extend shelf-life and influence the sensory perception and texture of food products. This is followed by the presentation of the clean label trend that recently influenced the use of additives in food production. The penultimate section summarizes the principles and challenges of the safety assessment of food additives. Eventually, an overview of regulations governing the use of food additives at the international level is made.

Pages: 14

Food safety is a range of activities aimed at protecting consumers against the risk of food poisoning and foodborne diseases. It is also an assurance that the food will not cause harm to the health of the consumer if it is prepared and consumed according to its intended use. In order to ensure the highest possible standards that protect the health and economic interests of consumers, the EU has developed and implemented the principles of an integrated food safety policy in the EU. The EU has also set standards for food control and food hygiene, animal health and welfare, plant health, and the prevention of the risk of contamination from external substances such as pesticides. As a result of increasing environmental pollution, as well as progressive urbanization, food of animal and plant origin may contain residues of harmful chemical compounds and also pose a microbiological hazard. Some improperly performed thermal treatments also contaminate food. Maximum levels of these pollutants have only been established for certain pollutants (e.g. mycotoxins, dioxins, nitrates) in order to protect public health. Preventive actions, such as the application of good hygiene and manufacturing practices (GHP, GMP) and the principles of hazard analysis of critical control points (HACCP), contribute to the achievement of food safety.

Pages: 24

This chapter discusses issues related to the presence of probiotics and prebiotics in food. Current definitions of these bioactive food components are given. Individual groups of probiotic microorganisms and prebiotic substances and their health-promoting properties are characterized. Methods of obtaining probiotics and prebiotics and possibilities of their use in the food industry for the production of functional foods are described. The chemical and physical properties of prebiotics and their effects on mood food are discussed in detail in other chapters.

Pages: 12

The knowledge about the influence of food and nutrition on the central nervous system is not complete. Food intake affects mood and mood seems to influence the decision of which kinds of food we prefer. A lot of people eat more food when they are nervous, stressed, or depressed in order to, consciously or not, improve their moods. The interaction between mood, emotional state, and feeding behaviors is a complex matter. This chapter tries to show how foods or their components influence our moods by action on the central nervous system (CNS). The impact of dietary protein, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, mineral compounds, and ethyl alcohol on the brain and mood are described. This knowledge is necessary for conscious control of our reactions after meals and for the planning of our moods.

Pages: 28

Food is a major environmental human cancer risk factor. One of the reasons for this is that food products contain substances that exhibit mutagenic and carcinogenic potential which may induce the transformation of normal somatic cells into cancerous cells. These compounds occur in food as a result of microbial contaminations (mycotoxins produced by molds), are generated from natural food components upon processing (e.g. heterocyclic aromatic amines formed during thermal treatment of meat), penetrate into foodstuffs due to environmental exposure (pesticides used to protect crops), but also sometimes are added to foods purposefully (some food additives). Although food components may affect carcinogenic processes in the human organism in many ways, affecting different hallmarks of cancer, the genotoxic mutagens and carcinogens are likely to remain the convenient marker of food safety as their detection and association with the development of oncological diseases are best established. This chapter presents major food mutagens and carcinogens with an emphasis on their established usefulness in the assessment of diet-related cancer risk.

Pages: 38

The increasing knowledge on the health benefits of certain food ingredients, in particular, those of plant origin, opened the discussion of the possibility of using edible plants or their active components in the prevention of non-communicable diseases. The health-promoting properties of plant foods are related to the presence of non-nutritive compounds, mainly plant secondary metabolites, which can affect many biological mechanisms critical for the proper functioning of the human body. This chapter presents an overview of the most commonly consumed secondary metabolites found in the food, including phenolics, terpenoids, nitrogen/sulfur-containing compounds such as betalains, purine alkaloids, glucosinolates, and sulfoxides, along with their classification, examples, sources, processing effect, and health benefits.

Pages: 14

Food manufacturers and regulators require rapid yet reliable analytical methods for assessing the quality of the products. This chapter discusses a vast array of alternative analytical methods and compares the conventional with the most current methods for food quality testing. The analysis covers the targeted and non-targeted compounds resulting in data as the basis for defining food standardization, confirming authentication, preventing adulteration, and ensuring safety. This approach especially counts for detecting and quantifying the quality markers of food products. Hence, the analytical techniques in the selection must be compatible with the target analytes in specific sample matrices. Finally, this chapter pinpoints some criteria that must be considered to choose the most appropriate method that fits the purpose of the analysis.