Pages: 31

This chapter is the introduction to the Routledge Handbook of Language Policy and Planning. The handbook approaches language policy and planning (LPP) from an innovative and interdisciplinary angle focusing on language policy as a form of public policy. It is designed for readers that include not only scholars from a wide range of disciplines spanning the social sciences and humanities, but also practitioners and concerned citizens. We begin by locating language policy and planning first and foremost as a responsibility of governments (at the national, regional or local level) and relevant bodies across all areas of public policy. We then discuss how language policy and planning takes form using a five-stage cycle adapted from public policy studies. These steps are the emergence of language-related issues, agenda- setting, policy formulation and adoption, implementation, and evaluation. The characteristics of the LPP approach discussed in this volume, particularly its theoretical framing and interpretation as well as translation into practice, contribute to its distinctiveness from most other published works in the field.

Pages: 54

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 14

This chapter traces the historical development of language policy and planning (LPP) as a modern field of study. Following a brief discussion of key concepts and definitions, it outlines the research of the pioneer years, before surveying the critical and ethnographic turns that the field has undergone subsequently. It concludes by discussing the uneasy relationship that current trends have with normative understandings about the form LPP practice should take in a given society, suggesting a rediscovery of the field's pragmatic and interdisciplinary origins as a means of reconnecting with the more practical concerns of policy-makers.

Pages: 17

Exercises in language policy and planning (LPP) rest upon foundations of ideology and identity. Given that, it is unsurprising that language management has a long history, even though formal academic attention is relatively recent. This chapter presents the key terms and themes in the area, concepts that reveal a field of considerable scope, and one that overlaps with other sociolinguistic concerns and perspectives. Special attention is given here to the foundational models that underpin LPP, to the dynamics of power and status that remain important in all its workings, and to the prescriptivist tendencies inherent in most undertakings.

Pages: 21

Models of use and survival of (minority) languages are reviewed. Two basic types of models can be distinguished. Macro models: the transmission of languages from one generation to the next occurs mainly in the family. A trade-off between emotional attachment (identity) and practical usefulness of a language is at the centre of the analysis. Micro models: the chief driving force is imitation during random encounters of single individuals. Spatial patterns of language use as well as changes in the structure of a single language can be analysed. A third approach consists of various hybrids of the other two.

Pages: 99

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 99

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 12

This chapter surveys the normative debate on language policy and planning, particularly its insights into the duties and roles of the state. It begins by defining and contrasting two dominant theoretical positions on the state and state power: liberal and Marxist. It then provides an overview of the main issues in the debate and the approaches developed to deal with these issues. Finally, the chapter discusses in some details Philippe Van Parijs's and Alan Patten's respective normative frameworks. The chapter concludes by hinting at an emerging area of research on the sources of normativity.

Pages: 12

After introducing a conceptual framework for analysing linguistic identity and political power, this chapter focusses on the close, yet nonetheless convoluted relationship between language and nationalism. It then assesses how the sociolinguistic tendencies of the present seem to challenge the historical legacy that links state and citizens to only one language. Contemporary societies face an increasingly complex diversity connected with the juxtaposition and intertwining of autochthonous languages, immigrant languages, and a lingua franca. Institutional approaches adopted to productively confront this diversity should follow strategies that generalise multilingual repertoires and set the foundations for a multilingual citizenship.

Pages: 19

This chapter provides an overview of the intersection of civil society engagement with public sector language policy and planning (LPP) in post-European colonial multilingual societies. It draws attention to the need for and advantages of public policy informed by both top-down and bottom-up or grassroots community-led contributions. It also cautions decision makers to distinguish between strong evidence-based advice and ideological conjecture offered by various civil and public sector allied interest groups at various points of the policy cycle. The chapter has relevance for policy-makers in any country currently experiencing increasing linguistic diversity, including because of human migration and displacement, and the need to develop multilingual policies, particularly in education.

Pages: 13

This chapter explores first the relation between territories, languages, and language policy and planning (LPP). The second section introduces key issues and concepts regarding the territorial character of LPP interventions. The third deals with the evolving geographies of language and territory, and the fourth with two distinct approaches: Laponce's territorial imperative and Raffestin's relational territory. The fifth section discusses how territorial insights are applied to LPP in two kinds of interventions: LPP for the nation-state and LPP for linguistic minorities. The conclusion addresses challenges for such arrangements from a territorial point of view.

Pages: 13

This chapter presents an economic analysis of the role of language skills in the labour market and in international trade. Language has economic value as a tool of communication, an element of culture, and a form of human capital. The knowledge of a dominant language improves labour market outcomes. A common language and an international lingua franca are also important for countries that trade with each other. While there has been a tendency toward language convergence globally, there is also a desire to maintain linguistic diversity and to protect languages in difficulty.

Pages: 14

This chapter uses elementary economic welfare theory to analyse language policy and planning. Government policy is motivated and justified by problems of market failure (inefficiencies) in a laisser-faire situation as well as by a wish for equity and fairness between different individuals. Inefficiency is shown to be a consequence of different properties of language-related goods. Cost–benefit and cost-effectiveness analysis are methods for applying theoretical considerations to practical problems. Here, the costs (structures) of different language planning measures are important. As an illustration, it is shown that the very common ‘percentage rule' for implementing policy measures can lead to undesired results.

Pages: 14

For several decades, research has shown that bilingualism, especially early bilingualism, has both linguistic and cognitive benefits on human development over the lifespan. This chapter discusses studies both in favour of and against this account. We further present the possible implications that the effects of bilingualism involve for language policy and planning. In the last section of this chapter, we address specific needs of bilingual speakers with an atypical language development to foresee a range of actions and plans that might be adopted for a complete bilingual growth in a vulnerable population.

Pages: 40

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 12

This chapter examines how power and politics affect language policy and planning. The focus is on the governmental process, specifically agenda-setting, of language policy formation. Three approaches to conceptualising power and the politics of language are discussed: rational, ideological, and institutional. These approaches are then applied to language policy agenda-setting in Belgium, India, and the United States. The limitations and challenges of these approaches are addressed at the conclusion of the chapter, along with suggestions for further reading that more generally considers power and the politics of language.

Pages: 12

This chapter introduces the notion of ‘discourse' and its relevance to the study of language policy; it also highlights the growing body of discourse-oriented research and its place within the field. The chapter begins with an overview of key issues and then notes relevant developments, especially those relating to agenda-setting. The subsequent section describes theories and methods of discourse (/analysis) in language policy and then presents relevant illustrative examples from discourse-oriented LPP research on Iraqi Kurdistan. The final section of the chapter explores some of the debates and challenges in a discourse approach to language policy.

Pages: 14

The overarching aim of this chapter is to discuss how and when the notions of inter-group relations and attitudes are relevant for LPP. To this end, the chapter focusses both on theoretical contributions from social psychology and on empirical questions, including measurement issues. The chapter discusses in particular inter-group relations, tensions and prejudices, attitudes toward ethnic and linguistic diversity, as well as language-specific and policy-specific attitude. Suggestions are also made regarding the relevance of all these concepts throughout the policy cycle.

Pages: 73

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 15

Programme theory is the very heart of a public policy cycle. It fits into the third stage of the policy cycle, ‘policy formulation and adoption'. Its function is to spell out the causal relationships between the resources invested in a policy (the inputs), the direct effects of a policy (the outputs), and its consequences in terms of the variables that a policy is intended to change (the outcomes). Spelling out these relationships, which are influenced by surrounding conditions and events, helps to explain ‘why a policy does what it does' and provides an indispensable reality check.

Pages: 14

The chapter introduces the reader to the theory and practice of language policy instruments (LPIs). Increased attention has been paid by researchers to the study of LPIs such as language action plans or schemes, censuses, information campaigns, and specific tools for service delivery. The chapter discusses different approaches to the study of those instruments. It pays attention to different stages of the policy process (agenda-setting, design, implementation, and evaluation). At each stage, the state can use instruments to attain its objectives. The chapter concludes explaining the advantages of LPI analysis for decision-makers and practitioners.

Pages: 14

This chapter presents cost–benefit analysis, the method commonly used by economists to assess public policies. It then examines three specific tools: the unit cost difference, the internal rate of return/​present value, and incidence analysis. Then it shows how they can be used to assess five language policies aimed at acquisition or use of language: providing schooling in maternal language of a minority group; teaching a second language; public provision of services in minority language; state regulated private provision of services in a given language; and public provision of signage.

Pages: 14

Though there is general awareness that language policy is a multi-level activity, there has been little systematic analysis of how interactions between actors and institutions at different territorial scales can influence language policy development. By engaging with two public policy approaches, multi-level governance and new institutionalism, this chapter develops a multi-level institutional framework to systematically analyse the factors influencing the development of particular language policies. It then illustrates the framework's explanatory potential by examining how institutional configurations at multiple territorial levels have shaped recent policy interventions relating to European regional or minority languages. The chapter concludes by reflecting to the framework's potential in relation to other types of language policies, for example foreign language learning or the linguistic integration of immigrants.

Pages: 14

This chapter sheds light on the normative frameworks and major legal principles for language policy and planning. Starting with an analysis of the historical evolution of international legal instruments and documents dealing with language rights and protection of linguistic minorities or minority languages, the chapter presents major legal instruments on the basis of two different but intimately intertwined perspectives, namely ‘hard law' and ‘soft law': the former composed by legally binding instruments, e.g., Art. 27 of the UN International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the latter composed by documents that are not legally binding but that exert political influence, such as the Opinions of the Advisory Committee on the FCNM.

Pages: 47

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 15

In this chapter, a four-part framework for monitoring the implementation of language policy is proposed which includes resources (inputs), interim yields (outputs), and end results (outcomes), with consideration of socio-institutional context. The framework is applied to the case of Canada's official languages policy in the federal public service. The official languages policy received disjointed implementation in the federal public service system, where context, inputs, outputs, and outcomes were not sufficiently linked or monitored. The result is a policy that delivered on one element of the policy (representation), with limited effects on the practices of language of work.

Pages: 13

Language policy formulation and regulation is often regarded as complex. Consequently, increased use of soft-law policy instruments and new forms of governance in both policy formulation and policy-making has gained momentum. However, variations in terms of space, territory, tools, and arenas make clear-cut solutions difficult to achieve. Drawing on previous research, the chapter presents a critical discussion on language policy implementation in a situation where new interactive governance mechanisms have emerged. The chapter contributes to a greater understanding of the process of policy implementation and adoption in the public sector context of language policy and planning.

Pages: 17

This chapter explains the concepts of indicator, indicator system, and information system. It clarifies why indicators are central in the implementation and monitoring of language policy. It presents the methodology to decompose a complex concept into more constitutive dimensions and then into quantifiable indicators. It discusses the most important properties of a good indicator and indicator system. It presents some existing experiences in the use of indicators in LPP from different countries. Finally, this chapter shows how to apply indicators to the study of language policies promoting linguistic vitality of minority languages, and policies aimed at reducing linguistic unease.

Pages: 32

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 16

This chapter discusses the issues related to the statistical evaluation of the impacts of language policies in a broad sense, connected to the recent findings in the econometrics of impact evaluation. The chapter includes a general discussion about the main framework and then presents several empirical strategies that can be adopted, given the type of intervention and data availability (distinguishing between experimental and non-experimental data), to achieve causal estimates of the impact of language policies. For every possible approach, the chapter also contains a brief and intuitive discussion of recent papers that apply each different econometric methodology.

Pages: 14

This chapter introduces readers to the concept of ethnographic monitoring—a methodology that includes participant and non-participant observation, in-depth interviews, document collection, and analysis in collaboration with stakeholders—and explores its utility as a framework for the critical qualitative evaluation of language planning and policy (LPP). This chapter argues that ethnographic monitoring sits at the intersection of description, interpretation, and evaluation, where evaluation refers not to causal impact assessment, but to a form of valuing in which researchers and stakeholders actively collaborate to determine a policy's worth.

Pages: 213

No chapter abstract available.

Pages: 13

Official multilingualism applies to contexts where two or more languages are legally recognised as the language of a polity, meaning that documents, services, and official communication should be provided in more than one language. The goal of this chapter is to offer a conceptual roadmap and an overview of scholarly debates surrounding official multilingualism. It explores the reasons to adopt official multilingualism, by highlighting the three main articulations of the principle of equality in multilingual settings (parity, minority enhancement, and proportionality). These articulations are used in order to elaborate six constellations of official multilingualism, each briefly illustrated by selected empirical examples.

Pages: 20

This chapter examines Language protection and promotion for minority languages (minlpp). Feasible minlpp engenders public debate, promoting symbiotic interventions for linguistically diverse communities. Macro-level factors influence the micro level of vitality, through successful acquisition, socialisation, as well as sustainable ethnolinguistic identity and praxis. The minlpp concept of comprehensiveness is crucial in sociolinguistically competitive environments. Restricted types of minlpp are clearly sub-optimal, e.g., if confined to lower-order grassroots promotions or to higher-order symbolic or official status-planning initiatives, and fail to provide the necessary inter-related and comprehensive strategic solutions. The sustainable collective dynamic of optimal minlpp generates ethnolinguistic cohesion and practical societal benefits.

Pages: 13

This chapter focusses on reclamation or revitalisation of languages associated to populations known as indigenous, original, aboriginal, ancestral, or autochthonous. Taking language displacement framework as a starting point, the chapter pays particular attention to both the conceptualisation and the possible scope of methods, practices, movements, and initiatives of language revitalisation, with special emphasis on the challenges of linguistic planning based on the interests and perspectives of the communities, as well as the intra-community factors that come into play in the design and implementation of language revitalisation strategies.

Pages: 15

The twentieth century witnessed increased economic and political unification including the formation of supranational organisations. This chapter discusses the language policies and practices of the United Nations and the European Union and the challenges of balancing economic pragmatism and expediency with protection of democratic rights and linguistic diversity. It documents limitations of the current language regimes and offers suggestions for review and reform. The chapter discusses different theoretical perspectives and the need for empirical studies to support policy analysis of alternative options, taking into account allocative and distributive considerations, whilst setting these apart from moral or rights-based arguments.

Pages: 13

More than half of the world's population lives in cities. As such, cities are culmination points of linguistic and cultural diversity with increasing mobility and international migration the driving forces of such diversification. We begin our contribution with a historical snapshot of linguistic diversity in cities, based on the example of Berlin, Germany. This historical example shows that linguistic diversity is a common feature of cities and urban areas, however research-based knowledge of the consequences of this reality and of the effects of related policies is scarce. We present a selection of related research and methodologies, focussing on descriptions and illustrations of the linguistic texture of cities via linguistic land- and soundscaping. We further present examples of policies and provisions made in response to increasing linguistic diversity in various cities. We conclude that this burgeoning area of research would benefit from both more varied and focussed approaches to establishing systematic knowledge about the consequences of linguistic diversity in cities, which may feed policies in response to it.

Pages: 13

This chapter traces the main phases of language education policies implemented by the Council of Europe, focussing on the Common European Framework of Reference and other language policy instruments. It analyses their impact on the national sphere and outlines possible future developments.

Pages: 13

The chapter analyses language policy-making in the context of multilingual post-colonial low-income countries. Many such societies rely on bilateral and multilateral assistance, and this often exposes domestic policy-making to influence or even full dependency, in overt and covert ways that threaten national sovereign control of the levers of governance. Faced with political and financial exposure, what kinds of language policy-making occur? The chapter discusses the question of how to reconcile divergent interests in framing and implementing language policies, what kind of language policy emerges at the intersection of aid dependency, multilingualism, and literacy, and why awareness of power differentials and interests is critical in discussing what is promulgated as language policy.

Pages: 14

The chapter outlines the main issues surrounding language policies in higher education (HELP), providing an insightful overview of the extensive literature on the topic, in order to investigate the concerns and challenges in the specific field of HELP trends in academia. Some key concepts are explored in order to provide a focussed perspective on HELP. The HELP concept is examined and gradually takes shape. Some key theoretical inputs are considered, and an analytical framework is proposed to address HELP in an integrating and systemic manner. In the conclusions, some of the challenges that HELP face are also discussed.

Pages: 13

In today's multilingual world, the democratic principle of equal access to public services brings translation and interpreting as key strategies for communication between individuals and authorities to the fore. In other words, governments need a translation policy as part of their language policy. This chapter defines translation policy with regard to the relevant scholarly literature on language policy. It discusses different prototypical translation policies and their real-world application in a representative selection of contemporary settings worldwide. It also analyses the links between these policies and linguistic justice, social cohesion, integration and non-discrimination of indigenous people, territorial minorities, immigrants, and refugees.

Pages: 13

Media policies as part of language policy and planning are in flux due to the digitalisation of the media sphere. Prior to the turn of the millennium, services in minority languages have been maintained as part of a national media umbrella. The digitalisation of communication has made earlier policy instruments largely obsolete. This requires a corresponding shift in law and policy. This chapter argues that this will include the revision or establishment of international instruments that encourage states and global commercial actors to upgrade their promotion and protection of endangered languages in a future that is truly multi-media and multi-stakeholder.

Pages: 12

This chapter discusses the power public authorities have to regulate the linguistic landscape. In that regard, relevant legal concepts will be defined, such as state sovereignty and territoriality, as well as individual linguistic freedom. The crucial demarcation line between official and private language use will be highlighted: whereas public authorities may regulate the official language use on their territory (exception made for specific rights of historical minorities), it will be shown that they have considerably fewer powers when it comes to the regulation of private language use, as the latter is protected by the fundamental principle of individual linguistic freedom. Specific jurisdictions (Canada (Quebec), France, Belgium, and Italy) will be briefly discussed to illustrate practical applications of the general legal principles.

Pages: 13

This chapter provides an overview of the nature and characteristics of language policy and planning for sign languages. This overview is followed by an examination of the ways in which language policy and planning for sign languages are both similar to and different from those found in spoken languages. It is argued that many of the differences are grounded in deficit understandings of both deafness and sign languages, and thus result in significantly different kinds of language policies and language planning activities.

Pages: 14

This chapter studies language systems that were consciously created to facilitate international communication. It sheds light on the history of planned language systems, provides an overview of various types of classification, and presents those projects that saw some degree of real-life application: Volapük, Latino sine flexione, Ido, Occidental, Basic English, and Interlingua. Its focus, however, is on Esperanto, an autonomous a posteriori system with a diverse and productive speech community, and the way in which language planning functions in the planned language today.

Pages: 16

Given the essential multilingual setup of Africa's independent states, the continent poses enormous challenges to national LPP. There are various non-African but also African transnational agencies, some with roots in shared history of colonialism and linked by a common ex-colonial language, which under the umbrella of cultural diplomacy take an external interest in LPP in African countries with the aim of pursuing their own agenda. This agenda is not necessarily to the benefit of the independent African countries concerned. The spotlight is on former colonial powers as much as on African institutions and on independent agencies.

Pages: 16

This chapter shows that although there is empirical evidence on the positive impact of language training, inclusive education, and citizenship and integration policies on the integration of immigrants in Europe, the results are often non-robust and context-dependent. To obtain more convincing evidence, this chapter recommends the following: (1) more studies exploring causal impacts using policy impact evaluation methods, (2) studies that attempt to identify the role languages play in these policies, and (3) the use of data science and machine learning techniques and social media data to mitigate data availability problems.